The Accidental Discovery That Rewrote History
In the winter of 1974, farmers leveling agricultural fields in Sanji Township, Pingshan County, Hebei Province made an astonishing discovery that would fundamentally alter our understanding of China’s Warring States period. While excavating soil from a large ancient mound, they uncovered numerous large tiles from palace buildings dating back to the Warring States era (475-221 BCE). The significance of this find was immediately recognized, and cultural relics authorities were promptly notified.
This was not the first indication of ancient remains in the area. Before the founding of New China, a stone tablet had been discovered nearby bearing an inscription: “The convicted official Gongchengde, overseer of the royal hunting grounds, guards the tomb. His former subordinate Man dares to inform later virtuous men.” Scholars identified “overseer of the royal hunting grounds” as a position mentioned in the Rites of Zhou responsible for tomb guardianship. These clues strongly suggested the presence of a major ancient cultural site in the vicinity.
Unearthing a Lost Capital
Following these discoveries, Hebei’s cultural relics department launched formal archaeological excavations that revealed an impressive ancient city wall stretching 4,000 meters north-south and 2,000 meters east-west, with rammed earth walls over 50 meters wide. The team also discovered extensive tomb clusters yielding magnificent “mountain-shaped” large tombs, luxurious chariot and horse pits, and exquisitely crafted bronze artifacts. The variety and beauty of these artifacts astonished the world.
Inscriptions on the excavated objects identified the site as the capital and royal tombs of the Zhongshan Kingdom during the Warring States period. After vanishing from history for over 2,200 years, this ancient kingdom had unexpectedly reemerged into modern consciousness.
Piecing Together Zhongshan’s Forgotten History
Historical records about Zhongshan are scattered through ancient texts like the Zuo Zhuan, Bamboo Annals, and Records of the Grand Historian. When Liu Xiang compiled the Strategies of the Warring States during the late Western Han dynasty, he included a dedicated “Zhongshan Strategies” chapter, placing Zhongshan alongside the seven major powers of the era as an influential state. However, these records are fragmented and lack precise descriptions. After the Warring States period, Zhongshan disappeared from historical accounts, leaving its history obscure and poorly understood.
The excavation of the Zhongshan site yielded over 90 inscribed bronze artifacts that dramatically expanded our knowledge. Notable finds included the Zhaoyu Map (the world’s earliest architectural plan with scale), the Zhongshan King Square Vase (with 448 characters of inscription), and the Zhongshan King Ding (with 469 characters of inscription). These lengthy inscriptions recorded Zhongshan’s royal lineage and historical events, filling gaps in the historical record and correcting previous misunderstandings.
The Rise and Fall of a Xianyu Kingdom
The Zhongshan Kingdom was a regional power established by the Xianyu people, a branch of the ancient Baidi ethnic group. Originally active in the Suide area of northern Shaanxi, they later migrated to the Taihang Mountains. Their name derived from the Xianyu River (modern Qingshui River, a tributary of the Hutuo River southwest of Wutai Mountain).
During the Spring and Autumn period, the Xianyu allied with tribes like Fei, Gu, and Qiuyou to expand outward, attacking Xing and invading Wei. Duke Huan of Qi, under the banner of “honoring the king and expelling the barbarians,” united Song, Cao and other states to save Xing and Wei, checking the Xianyu’s southward advance.
As Jin grew stronger in the mid-Spring and Autumn period, it successively conquered Xianyu’s vassal states Gu, Fei and Qiuyou, prompting Xianyu counterattacks. In 507 BCE, Xianyu forces defeated the Jin army at Pingzhong, capturing Jin general Guanhu. The following year, they established their state at Zhongren (modern northwest of Tang County, Hebei). Because their city contained a mountain, they called it “Zhongshan” (Central Mountain), marking the first appearance of this name in historical records.
Survival Against the Odds
After the 453 BCE Battle of Jinyang and the subsequent partition of Jin by Han, Zhao and Wei, Zhongshan took advantage of Jin’s internal turmoil to expand its territory. In 414 BCE, Zhongshan’s Duke Wu led his people from the Taihang Mountains to the eastern plains, establishing a capital at Gu (modern Dingzhou, Hebei) between Zhao and Wei territories. Adopting Huaxia rituals and systems, Duke Wu developed the state’s power. However, after his death, the young Duke Huan neglected governance, allowing Marquis Wen of Wei to send generals Yue Yang and Wu Qi to attack Zhongshan. After three years of bitter fighting, Wei conquered Zhongshan in 407 BCE, installing Crown Prince Ji as ruler of Zhongshan. When Ji later became Marquis Wu of Wei, Zhongshan’s remnants retreated into the Taihang Mountains – marking the kingdom’s first collapse.
Remarkably, the exiled Duke Huan spent over twenty years rebuilding strength and restored Zhongshan around 380 BCE, establishing a new capital at Lingshou (modern Lingshou County, Hebei). The revived kingdom expanded its territory south to Zhao and southeast to the ancient Zhang River (modern Boluo River southeast of Ningjin County), becoming a persistent thorn in Zhao’s side as it geographically divided Zhao’s territories.
The Architectural Marvels of Zhongshan
The rediscovered Zhongshan capital showcased advanced urban planning and construction techniques. The massive city walls, constructed using the rammed earth technique, demonstrated sophisticated engineering capabilities. The “mountain-shaped” tombs represented unique funerary architecture, while the chariot pits revealed the importance of military power and ceremonial display in Zhongshan culture.
Particularly noteworthy was the Zhaoyu Map, a bronze architectural plan found in King Cuo’s tomb. This remarkable artifact, the world’s earliest known scaled architectural drawing, detailed the layout of royal mausoleums with precise measurements and orientations. Its discovery revolutionized our understanding of ancient Chinese architectural planning and design capabilities.
Cultural Synthesis and Artistic Brilliance
Zhongshan’s material culture reflected a fascinating blend of nomadic and agricultural traditions. The kingdom produced exquisite bronze vessels, jade ornaments, gold and silver items that demonstrated remarkable technical skill and aesthetic sophistication. Notable artifacts included:
– The intricate “Four Dragons and Four Phoenixes” table base with gold and silver inlay
– The dramatic “Tiger Biting Deer” screen base
– The mythical “Two-Winged Divine Beast” sculpture
– The “Rhinoceros-shaped” vessel stand
The “Three Zhongshan King Cuo Vessels” – a large bronze ding, square vase, and round vase – bore lengthy inscriptions in elegant, standardized script. The iron-footed ding contained 469 characters, the longest known Warring States bronze inscription at time of discovery.
Textile fragments from two royal tombs revealed advanced silk and hemp weaving techniques, while lacquerware and pottery demonstrated diverse craft traditions. Musical instruments and dance-related artifacts pointed to a vibrant performing arts culture that combined nomadic vigor with agricultural refinement.
The Final Chapter
After King Cuo’s death following the Yan campaign, Zhongshan entered decline while Zhao grew stronger under King Wuling’s military reforms. In 305 BCE, Zhao launched a three-pronged attack that seized over one-third of Zhongshan’s territory. After five years of relentless warfare, Zhao finally conquered Lingshou in 296 BCE, exiling King Shang to Fushi (modern Yan’an area, Shaanxi). After more than two centuries of existence since the late Spring and Autumn period, Zhongshan was no more.
Legacy of a Lost Kingdom
The rediscovery of Zhongshan has profoundly impacted our understanding of China’s Warring States period in several key ways:
1. Ethnic Diversity: Zhongshan’s Xianyu origins demonstrate the significant role non-Huaxia groups played in shaping Chinese civilization.
2. Cultural Fusion: The kingdom’s artistic and material culture reveals how nomadic and agricultural traditions creatively merged.
3. Political Complexity: Zhongshan’s survival strategies show how smaller states navigated the dangerous politics between major powers.
4. Historical Records: The extensive inscriptions have verified and corrected traditional historical accounts.
5. Technological Achievements: Artifacts like the Zhaoyu Map reveal unsuspected advances in science and technology.
Today, Zhongshan’s artifacts are displayed in major museums, captivating visitors with their beauty and craftsmanship. Scholarly studies continue to analyze the kingdom’s unique position in Chinese history, while exhibitions tour internationally, introducing global audiences to this once-lost civilization. The chance discovery by Hebei farmers has given us back an entire chapter of China’s rich historical narrative, reminding us how much of the past may still lie buried, waiting to be uncovered.