A New Emperor’s Ambitious Beginning
When Emperor Xianfeng ascended the throne in 1850 at the age of 19, he inherited an empire in decline. The Qing Dynasty, which had ruled China for over two centuries, faced mounting internal and external pressures. Unlike his cautious father Emperor Daoguang, whose later years were marked by political stagnation, the young Xianfeng arrived with youthful energy and determination to reform.
The new emperor immediately signaled his reformist intentions by issuing an unprecedented edict encouraging officials to speak freely about government shortcomings. This broke the atmosphere of fear that had characterized the final years of Daoguang’s reign, when officials dared not criticize policies or point out local problems. Xianfeng’s call for frank advice created a brief but remarkable period of political openness in the early Qing bureaucracy.
The Flood of Memorials: Officials Seize the Opportunity
The response to Xianfeng’s invitation was immediate and enthusiastic. On April 11, 1850, Grand Court Minister Woren became the first to submit a memorial, earning imperial praise. This opened the floodgates, with other prominent officials quickly following suit:
– Luo Dunyan submitted his “Memorial on Rectifying the Foundation and Improving Customs” on April 21
– Wen Rui presented four proposals on April 22
– Zeng Guofan, then a Vice Minister of Rites, offered three recommendations on personnel selection
– Che Keshen from the Grand Secretariat proposed ten administrative reforms in May
These memorials represented the most comprehensive critique of Qing governance in decades. Xianfeng welcomed them all, creating an atmosphere of intellectual ferment at court that contrasted sharply with the repression of previous years.
Woren’s Analysis: Distinguishing Virtuous Officials from Sycophants
Among the early memorials, Woren’s stood out for its penetrating analysis of personnel problems. The Mongolian official, drawing on Confucian tradition, provided a detailed framework for identifying true statesmen versus self-serving careerists:
1. Character: True officials demonstrate modesty and calm, while petty men are clever and ambitious
2. Collegiality: Virtuous ministers nurture talent, while inferior ones eliminate rivals
3. Vision: Statesmen prioritize national interests, while lesser officials focus on personal gain
4. Integrity: Good officials maintain principles, while others bend with the wind
5. Service: Worthy ministers offer honest advice, while sycophants flatter rulers’ weaknesses
6. Communication: True patriots present uncomfortable truths, while others dismiss warnings
Xianfeng was so impressed that he ordered all officials to emulate Woren’s frankness, setting a new standard for political discourse.
Luo Dunyan’s Proposal: Reforming Official Culture
Luo Dunyan’s memorial focused on transforming bureaucratic culture. He argued that proper governance began with self-cultivation through study of classical texts. His recommendations included:
– Encouraging provincial governors to speak freely without fear
– Establishing a system where officials could critique policies openly
– Promoting philosophical study among the bureaucracy
The emperor praised Luo’s sincerity and ordered his suggestions implemented, signaling a willingness to change entrenched practices.
Zeng Guofan’s Vision: A Systematic Approach to Talent
The future architect of the Hunan Army, then a mid-ranking official, presented the most comprehensive personnel reform plan. Zeng proposed a three-pronged approach:
1. Transformation Method: Encouraging scholarly pursuits among officials
2. Cultivation Method: A system of education, evaluation, recommendation and promotion
3. Examination Method: Using memorials as tools to assess talent
Xianfeng enthusiastically adopted Zeng’s ideas, ordering daily lectures on governance classics like Zhu Xi’s works and the Zhenguan Political Essentials. This marked an attempt to reinvigorate the bureaucracy through Confucian learning.
The Limits of Reform: When Criticism Hit Too Close
Despite his initial openness, Xianfeng’s tolerance had clear limits. When criticism targeted the emperor personally, his reactions could be severe. Officials who pushed too far risked imperial wrath, including threats of punishment. This created a chilling effect, as ministers learned that certain truths remained dangerous to speak.
The pattern revealed a fundamental contradiction in Xianfeng’s reforms – while welcoming critiques of the system, he remained sensitive about his own authority. This limitation would ultimately constrain the impact of his early reform efforts.
Building a Brain Trust: Xianfeng’s Key Advisors
Recognizing the failures of his father’s reliance on mediocre officials, Xianfeng assembled a group of talented advisors:
Qi Junzao: A veteran statesman who had opposed appeasement during the Opium War, Qi became a key figure in the new administration. He helped remove the disgraced Mu Zhang’a and advocated for promoting capable officials regardless of background.
Du Shoutian: The emperor’s former tutor wielded immense influence, advising on everything from military reform to personnel decisions. His death in 1852 removed a stabilizing force just as crises mounted.
Wenqing: This Manchu official made the radical suggestion of promoting more Han Chinese officials, arguing they better understood local conditions. He recommended rising talents like Zeng Guofan before his death in 1856.
Sushun: Emerging as a dominant figure in the late 1850s, this bold Manchu reformer surrounded himself with talented Han scholars and pushed for meritocratic appointments. His tough stance against corruption made him powerful enemies.
High-Profile Purges: Sending a Message
Xianfeng used several high-profile cases to demonstrate his reform seriousness:
The Execution of Qiying: The official who negotiated unequal treaties under Daoguang first fell from grace when his memorial appeared to praise cunning over virtue. His final disgrace came in 1858 when he panicked during negotiations with Western powers and fled his post. Despite being a senior statesman, he was ordered to commit suicide – a shocking demonstration that past service wouldn’t excuse failure.
The Imperial Examination Scandal: In 1858, evidence emerged that candidates in the prestigious exams had bribed officials, including Grand Secretary Bojun. Despite Bojun’s high rank, he was executed along with six others after an investigation led by Sushun. The harsh punishment temporarily cleaned up the corrupt examination system.
Financial Reforms: Addressing a Fiscal Crisis
Facing severe financial strain from indemnities and military costs, Xianfeng implemented several controversial measures:
1. Expanded Sale of Offices: The government lowered prices for official positions four times between 1851-1857 to increase revenue
2. Domestic and Foreign Loans: Beginning in 1853, the Qing borrowed from wealthy families and foreign merchants
3. New Taxes: Additional levies on land and grain, including advance collection of taxes
4. Reduced Banner Privileges: Cut stipends for the hereditary military caste and allowed sale of their lands
5. Currency Experiments: Issued paper money and introduced large-denomination coins, though these often caused inflation
These desperate measures stabilized finances temporarily but eroded public confidence in the monetary system.
Legacy of a Troubled Reign
Xianfeng’s early reform efforts represented the last significant attempt by the Qing to self-correct before external pressures became overwhelming. While his personnel policies identified talented officials who would later suppress the Taiping Rebellion, his financial expedients weakened the economy. The ultimate failure to sustain reforms amid the Opium Wars and domestic rebellions highlighted the dynasty’s systemic problems.
The young emperor’s reign (1850-1861) became a transitional period where traditional governance methods proved inadequate against modern challenges. His mixed record – combining genuine reform attempts with authoritarian tendencies – foreshadowed the difficult choices facing late imperial China. The advisors he promoted, particularly Zeng Guofan, would play crucial roles in the subsequent Tongzhi Restoration, proving that some of Xianfeng’s personnel decisions had lasting positive impacts even as his dynasty entered its final decline.