A Questionable Succession: The Making of an Unfit Emperor

The Daoguang Emperor faced a dilemma in 1846. With nine sons but only two viable candidates – the 16-year-old Yizhu (future Xianfeng Emperor) and his more capable 15-year-old brother Yixin – the aging ruler had to choose an heir. This decision would prove catastrophic for China.

Yizhu suffered physical disadvantages – a lame leg from childhood injury and pockmarked face from smallpox. Academically and martially, he paled beside his brilliant younger brother. Yet through calculated political theater orchestrated by his tutor Du Shoutian, Yizhu presented himself as the embodiment of Confucian virtue. During hunting tests, while Yixin displayed martial prowess, Yizhu deliberately returned empty-handed, claiming compassion for pregnant animals. When questioned about governance, he wept rather than answer, demonstrating filial piety.

These performances, recorded in the Draft History of Qing’s “Biography of Du Shoutian,” convinced Daoguang that Yizhu possessed superior moral character. The emperor failed to recognize the deception, prioritizing perceived virtue over actual capability. This misjudgment placed China under the rule of perhaps the least qualified monarch in late Qing history.

The Collapse of Governance: Xianfeng’s Reign of Errors

Xianfeng’s 11-year reign (1850-1861) coincided with China’s most severe crises since the Ming-Qing transition. His accession year witnessed the Taiping Rebellion’s outbreak, which would claim 20-30 million lives over 14 years. Simultaneously, Western powers pressed for greater concessions through the Second Opium War (1856-1860).

The emperor’s response revealed his incompetence. He vacillated between resistance and appeasement – initially rejecting treaties, then capitulating after military defeats. His most infamous act came in September 1860 when British-French forces approached Beijing. Rather than defend the capital, Xianfeng fled to Chengde Summer Resort with his concubines and opera troupe, abandoning his people to foreign occupation.

The consequences proved catastrophic. Anglo-French troops looted and burned the Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan), destroying a 150-year architectural masterpiece containing China’s cultural treasures. The October 18-19, 1860 inferno consumed:
– 17,000+ cultural relics
– 300+ palace structures
– 5 generations of imperial collections

French writer Victor Hugo later condemned this as “two bandits’ history,” where “one filled his pockets, the other filled his coffers.”

The Cultural Catastrophe: Loss of a Civilization’s Memory

Yuanmingyuan represented the pinnacle of Chinese garden design, blending:
1. Northern imperial grandeur
2. Jiangnan water town elegance
3. Western Baroque elements (in the European Palaces section)

Its destruction constituted what historian Ruan Yuan called “the greatest cultural calamity since Qin’s burning of books.” Specific losses included:
– 12 bronze zodiac statues (only 7 recovered as of 2023)
– Complete sets of Song and Yuan dynasty paintings
– The Wenyuan Pavilion library (equivalent to France’s Bibliothèque nationale)
– Technical knowledge of water clock mechanisms and fountain engineering

This cultural genocide severed China’s connection to its artistic heritage, with looted items still appearing in European auctions. The 2000 sale of a Yuanmingyuan bronze animal head at Christie’s realized HK$15.44 million, highlighting the ongoing legacy of this pillage.

The Poisoned Legacy: Empress Dowager Cixi’s Rise

Xianfeng’s final blunder came on his deathbed in August 1861. Instead of balancing power between:
1. The Eight Regent Ministers (led by Sushun)
2. His brothers (especially Prince Gong Yixin)
3. The empress dowagers (Cixi and Ci’an)

He created a fatal imbalance by excluding Yixin from governance. This miscalculation enabled Cixi’s coup (the Xinyou Coup), inaugurating her 47-year dominance that:
– Stalled modernization efforts
– Centralized power in the court
– Ultimately contributed to Qing collapse

Historian Yan Chongnian argues Xianfeng’s three fatal errors – wrongful succession, capital abandonment, and regency mismanagement – set China’s modernization back by half a century. His reign marked the point where Qing decline became irreversible, paving the way for China’s “Century of Humiliation.”

Conclusion: Lessons from a Failed Reign

Xianfeng’s tragedy underscores how leadership selection determines civilizational trajectories. His reign demonstrates:
1. The danger of valuing perceived virtue over actual competence
2. The catastrophic costs of isolationist policies
3. How palace politics can undermine national survival

The ruins of Yuanmingyuan stand today not just as relics of foreign aggression, but as monuments to failed leadership – a warning about the consequences when unworthy rulers inherit great civilizations.