The Precarious State of Rebel Forces in 1638

In February 1638 (the 11th year of the Chongzhen reign), Li Zicheng and other rebel leaders found themselves in a dire strategic position after retreating from Sichuan. While most rebel forces operated in the Central Plains, only a few—including Li Zicheng and Guo Tianxing—remained active in the northwest. Their adversaries, Hong Chengchou (Governor-General of Shaanxi’s Three Border Regions) and Sun Chuanting (Shaanxi Provincial Governor), were among the Ming Dynasty’s most ruthless and effective officials.

The Shaanxi garrison troops, renowned for their ferocity, were under immense pressure from the imperial court to crush the rebellion within three months. Hong and Sun, already at odds with Grand Secretary Yang Sichang (who oversaw military affairs), feared punishment for failure. Thus, they launched relentless campaigns against Li’s forces.

Defeats and Desperate Maneuvers

After leaving Sichuan, Li Zicheng’s army suffered devastating defeats in two battles near Hezhou and Taozhou (modern Linxia and Lintan, Gansu) on March 19–20, 1638. With heavy losses in men and horses, Li retreated into ethnic minority regions to replenish his cavalry, only to be pursued by Hong’s forces. By April, Li was forced to turn east, crossing the Tao River at Yangsa Village and racing toward Xihe and Lixian.

To evade detection, Li adopted guerrilla tactics, splitting his forces. On April 10, he led a mere 300 soldiers and their families to Mawu in northern Lixian. Ming general Zuo Guangxian nearly intercepted them, but a misjudgment allowed Li to escape into the Shaanxi-Sichuan borderlands, where he reunited with subordinates Li Guo and Liu Tichun. A frustrated Hong Chengchou lamented in his report:

> “Li Zicheng, the arch-rebel, fled with only 300 defeated men. This was a rare opportunity to eliminate him, yet we failed. Now, he will regroup, and greater efforts will be needed to destroy him.”

The Struggle for Survival in Sichuan and Shaanxi

By May 1638, Li’s remaining 3,000 troops entered Sichuan, prompting Hong to dispatch reinforcements. On July 13, Ming forces clashed with Li’s army in Guangyuan. Outnumbered, Li retreated north to Chenggu, Shaanxi, intending to cross the Han River toward Huguang and Henan. However, Zuo Guangxian ambushed them during the crossing, reducing Li’s forces to just 1,400–1,500 men.

Facing desperation, one of Li’s commanders, Qi Zongguan, defected with 600 soldiers. Li and his dwindling band vanished into the mountains, avoiding direct engagements. Hong Chengchou arrogantly declared:

> “Li Zicheng will either be captured or perish in the wilderness.”

Yet, against all odds, Li persisted.

The Silent Years: 1638–1640

From August 1638 to autumn 1640, records of Li’s activities are scarce. His forces, reduced to around 1,000 men, operated in remote border regions between Shaanxi, Huguang, and Sichuan. With the Ming court focusing on larger rebel groups like Zhang Xianzhong and Luo Rucai, Li’s movements went largely unnoticed. Some officials even believed him dead.

Contrary to later myths—such as the fabricated “Battle of Tongguan Nanyuan”—Li’s forces never engaged in a grand, decisive defeat. Instead, they endured through stealth and resilience.

The Unyielding Spirit of Rebellion

While other rebel leaders surrendered or negotiated with the Ming, Li Zicheng “never accepted amnesty.” His unwavering defiance, even in extreme hardship, became a symbol of peasant resistance. Though his influence waned during these years, his survival laid the groundwork for his dramatic resurgence in Henan in 1641—a turning point that would eventually topple the Ming Dynasty.

Legacy: From Obscurity to Empire

Li’s perseverance during these “forgotten years” underscores a key lesson: even in defeat, resilience can rewrite history. His ability to evade annihilation preserved the rebellion’s momentum, proving that in times of crisis, survival itself is a form of victory. Modern historians continue to reassess this period, separating fact from legend to reveal the true tenacity of one of China’s most iconic revolutionaries.

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