A Stalemate of Two Decades

The question of Taiwan dominated early discussions in the Kangxi Emperor’s reign . The initial consensus among regents was to pursue diplomacy rather than military action. The Qing navy, particularly the poorly equipped Fujian fleet, was deemed incapable of challenging the Zheng forces at sea.

Zheng Jing, Koxinga’s son and successor, proposed terms mirroring Korea’s tributary relationship with China: Taiwan would remain autonomous, its people unshaven , and nominally subordinate through tribute—but not as an integral part of Qing territory. This “Korea model” was unacceptable to Kangxi, who insisted Taiwan was Chinese land, not a foreign state.

Over 18 years , the Qing court engaged in 11 formal negotiations with Zheng Jing, displaying remarkable patience. In 1678, Fujian’s governor Yao Qisheng twice sent envoys to persuade Zheng Jing, appealing to reason and shared heritage, but to no avail. By 1680, the Qing offered their most generous terms: granting Zheng Jing the title “King of the Eight Min,” allowing him to retain his customs and even skip formal submission—provided Taiwan abandoned the Korea analogy. Yet Zheng Jing, now firmly entrenched, escalated demands, including an annual “tribute” of 60,000 silver taels and the shocking claim that Taiwan was “overseas, beyond China’s borders.”

Kangxi’s furious response became historic: “Korea has always been a foreign land, but Zheng Jing is a subject of China. If he refuses the queue, how can we trust his loyalty?” This declaration framed Taiwan as an internal matter, not a diplomatic one.

The Turning Point: Chaos in the Zheng Court

Fate intervened in 1681. On the 28th day of the lunar New Year, Zheng Jing died—reportedly from a fatal hemorrhoidal obstruction, as recorded in Taiwan Waiji. His death triggered a succession crisis. His eldest son, Zheng Kezang , was named heir. Though described as capable and resembling Koxinga in resolve, Zheng Kezang faced immediate opposition.

Powerful minister Feng Xifan orchestrated a coup, accusing Zheng Kezang of illegitimacy and rallying Koxinga’s widow, Lady Dong, to depose him. Bitter over past scandals linked to Zheng Kezang , Lady Dong installed her 11-year-old grandson Zheng Keshuang as the new “Prince of Yanping.” Feng, now “Duke of Loyalty,” seized control, but the regime’s legitimacy crumbled. Discontent spread among officials and troops, exacerbated by three consecutive years of crop failures—a dire omen in Chinese political tradition.

The Final Campaign

With the Zheng regime weakened, Kangxi acted. In July 1681, Grand Secretary Li Guangdi urged immediate action, recommending the reinstatement of Admiral Shi Lang to lead the invasion.

Shi Lang, a Fujian native and former Ming officer turned Qing loyalist, had been sidelined for 13 years due to political suspicions. Now, Kangxi entrusted him with command. After meticulous preparation, Shi Lang’s fleet of 300 ships and 20,000 troops launched in June 1683. The decisive Battle of Penghu shattered Zheng forces; within months, Zheng Keshuang surrendered. Taiwan was formally annexed in 1684, ending the Zheng dynasty’s 60-year rule.

Legacy: The Birth of Modern Taiwan

Kangxi’s policies post-annexation were pragmatic. He initially considered abandoning Taiwan, fearing it would drain resources, but advisors argued its strategic value against pirates and foreign encroachment. The island became a prefecture of Fujian, integrating into Qing administration while retaining unique maritime governance.

The reunification marked a turning point:
1. Territorial Integrity – Solidified Taiwan’s place within China, refuting separatist claims.
2. Maritime Security – Curbed piracy and deterred European colonial ambitions.
3. Cultural Integration – Han migration surged, shaping Taiwan’s demographic future.

Kangxi’s blend of military resolve and administrative foresight set precedents for later disputes, echoing into modern geopolitics. As historian Jonathan Spence notes, “The Zheng saga was China’s first confrontation with maritime secession—and its blueprint for unity.”

This 17th-century conflict remains a cornerstone of cross-strait narratives, demonstrating how patience, timing, and decisive leadership reshaped history.