The Ghost of Feudalism Returns

In 1370, the founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, issued an imperial edict declaring: “The way to govern the empire is to establish feudal barriers—to protect the state above and secure the people below.” This marked the revival of feudalism, a system long abandoned in Chinese history. To many, it seemed like a baffling decision—one that defied centuries of political wisdom.

Zhu Yuanzhang, a former peasant and monk who rose to power through sheer determination, was no stranger to defying expectations. Yet his reintroduction of feudalism—a system that had repeatedly led to fragmentation and war—raised eyebrows even among his closest advisors. Why would an emperor who prided himself on learning from history resurrect a policy that had doomed past dynasties?

The Origins of Feudalism in China

Feudalism, known as “fengjian” (分封), first flourished under the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046–771 BCE). The Duke of Zhou, a key architect of Zhou rule, distributed lands to loyal nobles and relatives to consolidate control over a vast and unstable realm. At the time, it was a necessity—the Zhou lacked the centralized power to govern directly, and they relied on regional lords to maintain order.

But by the Eastern Zhou period (770–256 BCE), the system’s fatal flaw became apparent: feudal lords grew too powerful, ignoring the central court and plunging China into the chaos of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE), recognizing this danger, abolished feudalism entirely in favor of centralized bureaucracy. Yet, like a stubborn ghost, feudalism kept returning—revived by the Western Han, briefly reinstated by the Western Jin, and now, centuries later, resurrected by Zhu Yuanzhang.

Zhu Yuanzhang’s Feudal Experiment

Between 1370 and 1391, Zhu Yuanzhang conducted three major enfeoffments, granting his sons and grandsons vast territories and military authority. His first decree in 1370 appointed nine of his sons as regional princes, including:
– Zhu Di (later the Yongle Emperor) as Prince of Yan (Beijing)
– Zhu Shuang as Prince of Qin (Shaanxi)
– Zhu Gang as Prince of Jin (Shanxi)

These princes were given substantial autonomy, including private armies (up to 19,000 troops), judicial oversight of local officials, and hereditary privileges. Yet Zhu, ever the shrewd tactician, imposed strict controls:
– Spies in the Court: Each prince was assigned two Confucian scholars—ostensibly as tutors, but in reality as imperial informants.
– Financial Dependence: While princes commanded troops, their salaries came from the central treasury, ensuring loyalty.
– Mutual Surveillance: Princes were strategically placed to watch one another, preventing any single faction from gaining dominance.

The Hidden Motive: Fear of the Old Guard

Zhu Yuanzhang’s decision was not purely ideological—it was born of paranoia. Unlike emperors from aristocratic backgrounds, Zhu had risen from obscurity, and his former comrades-in-arms knew his flaws all too well. Many of these veterans, like the notorious chancellor Hu Weiyong, grew dismissive of the emperor, even openly defying him.

Feudalism, in Zhu’s eyes, was a safeguard. By placing his sons—loyal by blood—in key regions, he could counterbalance the influence of meritorious officials. As he bluntly told critic Ye Boju, who warned against feudalism’s risks: “The Song and Yuan fell because they lacked loyal kinsmen in times of crisis. You see only the downsides, not the benefits!”

The Unintended Consequences

Ye Boju’s warnings proved prophetic. Zhu’s system had two fatal weaknesses:
1. Financial Burden: Each prince’s descendants were entitled to state support, creating an unsustainable drain on the treasury.
2. Military Ambitions: Princes like Zhu Di, stationed on the northern frontier, amassed real battlefield experience—and armies.

In 1399, just years after Zhu Yuanzhang’s death, Zhu Di launched the Jingnan Campaign, overthrowing his nephew and seizing the throne as the Yongle Emperor. Ironically, the very system designed to prevent rebellion had enabled it.

Legacy: A System That Outlived Its Purpose

Despite its risks, Ming feudalism endured for 276 years, with only a handful of princely rebellions—most of which failed. Zhu Yuanzhang’s gamble was, in some ways, a success: it stabilized the early Ming by neutralizing the old elite. Yet it also planted the seeds for future crises, including the Tumu Crisis (1449), where a Ming emperor was captured by Mongols after incompetent princely leadership.

Ultimately, Zhu’s revival of feudalism was a testament to his pragmatism—and his distrust. He had outmaneuvered his rivals, but in doing so, he proved that history’s lessons are never straightforward. As Zhu himself might have admitted: “Even the wisest ruler cannot foresee every consequence of his deeds.”

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Word Count: 1,520
Key Themes: Centralization vs. decentralization, dynastic stability, political paranoia, unintended consequences of policy.
SEO Keywords: Ming Dynasty feudalism, Zhu Yuanzhang, Yongle Emperor, Chinese imperial history, Zhou Dynasty fengjian system.