The Origins of Social Stratification in Ancient China

Ancient Chinese society developed complex hierarchies rooted in conquest and economic necessity. The earliest divisions emerged when victorious tribes subjugated defeated groups, transforming them into slaves for labor or serfs for taxation. Historical records suggest slave populations remained relatively small in these early periods, with the most severe tensions existing between conquerors and their agricultural serfs.

Two critical terms from classical texts reveal deeper layers of this social structure: the “Guoren” (国人) and “Yeren” (野人). At first glance, these appear as simple geographic distinctions, but they actually represent a fundamental conqueror-conquered relationship. The Guoren comprised the conquering tribes who established fortified settlements in strategic mountainous areas, while the Yeren were subjugated peoples confined to cultivating surrounding plains.

This division manifested in several ways:
– Early capitals were deliberately built in defensible mountainous terrain
– The Guoren maintained standing armies while the Yeren were excluded from military service
– Political participation was restricted to the Guoren, as evidenced when King Li of Zhou was overthrown by Guoren protests while the Yeren could only flee oppressive rule

The Evolution of Class Boundaries

Initially, strict barriers separated conquerors from the conquered, but four key factors gradually dissolved these divisions:

1. Time’s passage: As war memories faded, old animosities diminished
2. Geographic mobility: Guoren moved outward while Yeren migrated inward, facilitating intermarriage
3. Economic disparities: Urban Guoren grew wealthy through trade while rural Yeren remained poor
4. Legal reforms: Voting rights and military service eventually extended to Yeren

The original hierarchy based on conquest transformed into occupational classes: scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants. Warriors (士) formed the political elite, as officials were selected exclusively from military ranks. The Guanzi text records specialized villages for scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants, while the Zuo Zhuan notes how the Chu state maintained this occupational segregation during military campaigns.

The Caste System and Its Decline

Ancient China developed a rigid hereditary caste system described in the Guanzi: “Scholars’ sons remain scholars, farmers’ sons remain farmers.” This structure began collapsing when economic changes undermined its foundations:

1. Land reforms: The well-field system’s collapse allowed farmers to change occupations
2. Industrial changes: Failed state monopolies prompted private craftsmanship
3. Commercial growth: Expanding trade created new merchant classes

Political shifts accelerated the caste system’s demise:
– Corrupt nobles were replaced by wandering scholars
– Warring States conflicts toppled aristocratic houses
– Intermarriage between classes became common, unlike India’s strict caste system

Slavery and Its Complexities

Slavery originated from prisoners of war, with the Zhou Li classifying five types of slaves. Early slaves were exclusively foreign captives; only later were criminals enslaved. Sociologically, clans often delegated policing to outsiders, explaining why foreign slaves guarded palaces.

Female slaves (婢) could marry commoners or other slaves, producing children with intermediate status. Manumission occurred through:
1. Legal decree: As when Fan Xuanzi promised to burn criminal records
2. Monetary redemption: Like Lu’s law allowing slave redemption with government funds

The Transition to Capitalism

The Han Dynasty’s Records of the Grand Historian describes how capitalism eroded feudal hierarchies:
– Wealth replaced nobility as the status determinant
– Merchants prospered while farmers impoverished
– Legal distinctions collapsed before economic power

This transition occurred because:
1. Violent conquest became socially unacceptable
2. Economic power created new forms of control
3. Wealthy commoners surpassed impoverished nobles

The Resurgence of Ethnic Hierarchies

After ancient class structures faded, ethnic divisions emerged during periods of weakened Han military power. The Northern Qi’s Emperor Shenwu manipulated these tensions by telling Han people the Xianbei were their protectors, while telling Xianbei the Han were their servants.

Significant differences existed between earlier and later conquest dynasties:
– Pre-Liao dynasties: Non-Han rulers embraced Chinese culture (e.g., Emperor Xiaowen of Wei)
– Post-Jin dynasties: Rulers preserved ethnic identities (e.g., Jin’s Emperor Shizong)

The Jurchen Jin dynasty intensified ethnic oppression by:
– Resettling military households on Han lands
– Creating systemic land confiscation
– Fostering enduring ethnic hatreds

The Yuan Mongols proposed exterminating Han Chinese to create pastures, only prevented by Yelü Chucai’s intervention. They implemented a four-tier ethnic hierarchy favoring Mongols and Semu over northern and southern Chinese.

The Qing maintained Manchu privileges through:
– Residential segregation (Eight Banners)
– Official quotas favoring Manchus
– Separate legal systems for banner people

The Persistence of Social Stratification

Despite legal abolitions, social hierarchies persisted through:
1. Cultural practices: Marriage customs maintaining clan prestige
2. Economic realities: Wealth determining education and opportunity
3. Occupational inertia: Families continuing traditional trades

Modern class struggles emerged from industrial capitalism’s new dynamics:
– The old middle class disappeared into proletarian or capitalist ranks
– Upward mobility became increasingly difficult
– Wealth concentration created de facto aristocracy

This historical examination reveals China’s social hierarchies evolved from conquest-based systems to economic class structures, with ethnic divisions periodically resurfacing during times of weakened central authority. The complex interplay between legal status, economic power, and cultural practice continues influencing Chinese society’s structure today.