The Turbulent Landscape of Five Dynasties China

The mid-10th century witnessed one of China’s most fragmented periods—the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era (907–979). Amid constant warfare between rival states, Emperor Chai Rong (posthumously known as Zhou Shizong) emerged as the most capable ruler of Later Zhou (951–960), inheriting the throne from his adoptive father Guo Wei in 954. Unlike his pleasure-seeking contemporaries such as the Liao Dynasty’s “Sleeping Emperor” Yelü Shulü, Chai Rong pursued ambitious reforms while personally leading military campaigns to reunify China.

His reign marked a critical transition between Tang collapse and Song consolidation. Contemporary records reveal a ruler who balanced military expansion with agricultural reforms, legal codification, and infrastructure projects—laying foundations that would enable the Song Dynasty’s eventual reunification.

Strategic Military Campaigns: From Huainan to the Khitan Frontier

In spring 958, Chai Rong completed his southern campaign by annexing Huainan from Southern Tang—a victory that secured vital economic resources. The Zizhi Tongjian records his immediate pivot northward: “Having pacified Huainan, the emperor returned to Daliang and dispatched Zhang Yongde with 20,000 troops to guard against Khitan incursions.”

This reflected Chai Rong’s pattern—short, intense campaigns followed by governance phases:
– May 958: Retaliatory strikes against Khitan border towns
– July 958: Land reform initiatives including standardized tax policies
– November 958: Cultural legitimacy projects like compiling state rituals

His 959 northern campaign demonstrated military brilliance. With minimal forces, Chai Rong achieved bloodless victories through psychological warfare:
– April 17: Ningzhou’s surrender after imperial forces appeared at its gates
– April 28-May 1: Chain reaction of Khitan border garrison surrenders
– Strategic positioning: Establishing Xiongzhou and Bazhou as frontier commanderies

Institutional Reforms: Building the Framework for Song Centralization

Chai Rong’s domestic policies systematically dismantled regional autonomy:

1. Fiscal Centralization
– October 958 land surveys eliminated aristocratic tax exemptions
– Confucius’s descendants famously lost hereditary tax privileges

2. Administrative Restructuring
– Village-level governance units (100-household tuan) with appointed elders
– Centralized payroll for local officials to reduce warlord influence

3. Infrastructure Legacy
– 959 canal projects connected four major transport routes to Kaifeng:
Bian Canal (Jianghuai supplies)
Cai River (Henan logistics)
Wuzhang Canal (Shandong corridor)

These became the backbone of Northern Song’s supply network.

The Unexpected Crisis: Illness and Succession Struggles

Chai Rong’s sudden illness during the 959 campaign triggered a political earthquake. Key developments reveal his succession dilemma:

Power Players in 959
| Figure | Position | Relationship |
|——–|———-|————–|
| Zhang Yongde | Former Palace Command Head | Brother-in-law |
| Li Chongjin | Military Commissioner | Cousin |
| Zhao Kuangyin | New Palace Command Head | Professional soldier |

The infamous “Commander Shall Become Emperor” wooden plaque appeared during Chai Rong’s return journey—likely planted by factions anticipating his death. His final appointments sought balance:
– Exiling Zhang Yongde to Tanzhou
– Sending Li Chongjin to Huainan
– Promoting Zhao Kuangyin while appointing civilian overseers

Legacy: The Unfulfilled Vision

Chai Rong died at 39 on June 19, 959, leaving:
1. Territorial Gains: Established Song’s northern frontier along Juma River
2. Institutional Blueprints: Tax systems, legal codes, and transport networks adopted by Song
3. Strategic Dilemma: Unresolved Khitan threat due to aborted northern campaign

Historian Sima Guang noted the tragic irony: “Had Heaven granted him thirty years, his accomplishments would have surpassed Han and Tang.” Instead, his reforms became tools for Zhao Kuangyin’s usurpation—within months of Chai Rong’s death, the Chenqiao Mutiny would establish the Song Dynasty, inheriting the systems he designed to prevent such coups.

The 959 campaign’s abrupt end preserved Khitan strength, creating the Yan云十六州 problem that would haunt Song for centuries. Yet Chai Rong’s governance model—military professionalism paired with civilian administration—became the Song template, making him the most influential transitional ruler in Chinese medieval history.