A Crisis for the Qing: The Shattering of Invincibility

The year 1652 marked a turning point for the newly established Qing Dynasty. Two devastating defeats—the suicide of Kong Youde in Guilin and the death of Nikan at Hengyang—shattered the myth of Manchu military invincibility. These losses exposed vulnerabilities in Qing expansion, particularly in southern China where resistance from Ming loyalists remained fierce.

Kong Youde, a former Ming general turned Qing collaborator, had been a key figure in the Qing southern campaign. His defeat and suicide in Guilin sent shockwaves through the Manchu court. Just months later, Prince Nikan, a respected Manchu commander, fell in battle at Hengyang. These twin disasters forced the Qing leadership to reconsider their strategy for subduing southern China.

The Manchu Dilemma: Trust vs. Expertise

Faced with mounting setbacks, the Qing court faced a difficult choice. Traditionally, the dynasty relied on Manchu and allied Mongol commanders to lead military campaigns. However, the complexities of southern warfare—unfamiliar terrain, guerrilla tactics, and local resistance—demanded a different approach.

After secret deliberations in 1653, the Qing leadership made a bold decision: appoint Hong Chengchou, a former Ming official, as Viceroy of Five Provinces with sweeping military powers. This move reflected a pragmatic shift—prioritizing competence over ethnic loyalty in critical campaigns.

Hong Chengchou: From Ming Loyalist to Qing Strategist

Hong Chengchou’s appointment was remarkable given his background. A prominent Ming dynasty official, he had surrendered to the Qing in 1642 after a prolonged siege at Songshan. His defection had been controversial, but his administrative skills and knowledge of southern China made him invaluable to the Qing cause.

By 1653, Hong had already proven his worth during the Qing conquest of Jiangnan, where his policy of combining military pressure with amnesty offers helped pacify the region. His understanding of Han Chinese psychology and governance made him uniquely qualified for the southern campaign.

Crafting a New Military Strategy

In June 1653, Hong Chengchou received his formal appointment with an expansive mandate covering Huguang (modern Hubei and Hunan), Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, and Guizhou. His title—stretching over fifteen lines in official documents—reflected the enormous trust placed in him:

“Imperial Commissioner for Military Affairs of Huguang, Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, and Guizhou, Supervisor of Grain Supplies, Grand Guardian and Grand Tutor to the Heir Apparent, Grand Secretary of the Neige Historiography Academy, Minister of War and Right Vice Censor-in-Chief.”

Hong immediately set about assembling a specialized force. He requested 11,000 troops drawn from various garrisons, specifically excluding weaker soldiers from interior provinces. His selections reveal a keen military eye—focusing on seasoned veterans from border regions known for their combat experience.

The Evolving Campaign: Adjustments and Challenges

The original plan underwent significant modification when the Qing court realized the impracticality of having Hong oversee Guangdong, where princes Shang Kexi and Geng Jimao held autonomous power. In July 1653, the mandate was revised to exclude Guangdong but include Jiangxi, reflecting shifting strategic priorities.

Hong received updated credentials at Zhengjiakou in Shandong in August 1653. The new imperial edict emphasized a policy combining military action with cultural assimilation:

“Through civil virtue and compassionate governance, we shall bring peace… Appointing a respected minister who understands local conditions to employ both pacification and suppression as circumstances require.”

Unprecedented Powers for Unprecedented Times

The Qing court granted Hong extraordinary authority:

– Command over all provincial governors, military commanders, and generals
– Control of military logistics and supplies
– Authority to execute disobedient officials up to fifth-rank civil officials and vice-generals
– Complete operational autonomy, requiring only post-action reports

This concentration of power in a Han Chinese official was unprecedented in early Qing history, demonstrating the court’s desperation to stabilize the south.

Assembling a Multicultural Force

Hong’s army represented a microcosm of Qing military diversity:

– Former Ming officers like Li Benshen (once subordinate to the notorious Gao Jie)
– Ex-rebel commanders such as Liu Zhong, who had served as “Earl Pingnan” in the Shun rebel regime
– Manchu banner forces under officials like Zhang Dayuan
– Regional specialists including the veteran but ailing Bai Guang’en, kept as a symbolic figure

This force blended Qing banner troops with experienced former Ming and rebel fighters—a pragmatic solution to the challenges of southern warfare.

The Historical Significance of Hong’s Appointment

The 1653 campaign marked several important developments in Qing military history:

1. Professionalization Over Ethnicity: The Qing demonstrated willingness to prioritize competence over ethnic background in critical situations.
2. Adaptive Governance: The adjustment of Hong’s mandate showed flexibility in imperial policymaking.
3. Hybrid Warfare: The campaign combined traditional Manchu cavalry tactics with Ming-style garrison systems and psychological warfare.

Legacy: The Blueprint for Qing Expansion

Hong Chengchou’s southern campaign established patterns that would characterize Qing rule:

– The use of “tusi” (native chieftain) systems in southwest China
– The combination of military pressure with cultural assimilation
– The integration of former enemies into the Qing administrative structure

His methods—particularly the balance of force and persuasion—would influence Qing policy in later conflicts, including the suppression of the Three Feudatories rebellion and the conquest of Xinjiang.

Modern Perspectives on a Controversial Figure

Historians continue to debate Hong Chengchou’s legacy:

– Collaborator or Pragmatist? Some view him as a traitor to the Ming, others as a realist who helped minimize bloodshed.
– Architect of Stability His policies arguably laid groundwork for the “High Qing” era’s prosperity.
– Military Innovator His combined-arms approach anticipated later Qing military reforms.

The 1653 campaign remains a fascinating case study in empire-building, military adaptation, and the complex interplay between ethnic identity and state service in early modern China.