Introduction: The Paradox of Patriotism and Violence
The 18th-century English writer Samuel Johnson once famously remarked, “Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel.” This observation finds a vivid historical echo in Japan’s tumultuous mid-19th century, a period marked by the emergence of what might be called “patriotic thugs” — fervent nationalist samurai who violently opposed foreign influence and trade. These individuals, driven by a mixture of xenophobia, loyalty to Japan’s feudal heritage, and frustration with political change, left an indelible impact on Japan’s transition from isolation to modernity.
This article delves into the historical context and key events surrounding these “patriotic thugs,” exploring their motivations, actions, and the broader cultural and political legacy they left behind. In doing so, it sheds light on a critical juncture in Japanese history, when the nation grappled with opening its doors to the world under immense internal and external pressure.
Japan’s First Encounter with the West: The Arrival of the Kanrin Maru
In 1860, Japan took a bold step onto the international stage when the Kanrin Maru, a Japanese warship, sailed to the United States. This journey marked one of the earliest official contacts between Japan and the West following centuries of national seclusion under the sakoku policy. The crew was exposed to a world of technological marvels and cultural novelties previously unimaginable.
An emblematic anecdote from this voyage captures the cultural shock and curiosity of the time: Captain Katsu Kaishū purchased a black Western-style umbrella, a novelty for the Japanese who traditionally used wooden umbrellas. When he expressed a desire to use the umbrella publicly upon returning home, his crew warned him against such ostentation, fearing retribution from the ronin who violently opposed Western influence.
This caution was well-founded. Just two weeks before the Kanrin Maru’s return, Ii Naosuke, a high-ranking official and advocate of foreign trade, was assassinated by ronin at Edo Castle’s Sakurada Gate. This assassination, known as the Sakurada Gate Incident, symbolized the peak of violent resistance against Japan’s opening to the West.
Historical Background: Japan’s Isolation and the Shock of Western Incursion
For centuries, Japan had maintained a policy of relative isolation, limiting foreign contact primarily to Dutch and Chinese traders under strict regulations. This seclusion preserved a unique social and political order dominated by the Tokugawa shogunate and a rigid samurai hierarchy.
The mid-19th century, however, brought seismic changes. Western imperial powers, armed with superior technology and driven by expansionist ambitions, forced open markets across Asia. Japan’s strategic location and economic potential made it a target for similar pressures.
Unlike Qing China, which resisted Western demands and suffered humiliating defeats, Japan’s shogunate opted for a more cautious approach, negotiating treaties that opened ports and allowed limited foreign trade. Yet opening the gates exposed deep fissures within Japanese society, particularly among the samurai class.
The Rise of the “Patriotic Thugs”: Xenophobia and Samurai Discontent
Among the samurai, particularly young and lower-ranking ronin, resentment toward foreign presence grew rapidly. These warriors, steeped in traditional ideals of loyalty and honor, perceived the arrival of foreigners as an existential threat to Japan’s sovereignty and cultural purity.
The “patriotic thugs” embraced a violent form of nationalism, targeting not only foreign residents but also Japanese officials and citizens who cooperated with foreigners. This resentment was fueled by a belief that foreign influence brought moral contamination and dishonor.
The first recorded attack on foreigners occurred in August 1858 in Yokohama, when Russian sailors purchasing provisions were assaulted by samurai, resulting in casualties. This incident foreshadowed a wave of violence:
– In late 1858, a Chinese employee at the French consulate was killed, mistaken for a Westerner because of his Western-style clothing.
– In January 1860, a Japanese interpreter at the British consulate was assassinated.
– In February 1860, two Dutch ship captains were murdered.
Remarkably, none of the perpetrators were ever apprehended, which emboldened further attacks.
Escalating Violence and the Crisis of Foreign Relations
Following the Sakurada Gate assassination of Ii Naosuke, anti-foreign sentiment intensified, and violence became more frequent and brazen. Foreign observers described Japan as a land of chaos and danger, where foreigners risked their lives simply by walking the streets.
The violence extended beyond direct attacks on foreigners to incidents involving diplomatic personnel and unintended provocations. In 1862, several notable events escalated tensions:
– An American translator was killed early in the year.
– British diplomats faced assaults on their legations.
– British sailors were attacked and wounded.
– The infamous Namamugi Incident occurred in September 1862, when a British rider inadvertently collided with a feudal lord’s procession and was killed by the lord’s samurai entourage.
The Namamugi Incident nearly provoked a full-scale war between Britain and Japan. The shogunate was forced to pay a substantial indemnity to the British as a means of diffusing the crisis, highlighting the delicate balance Japan tried to maintain between modernization and tradition.
Imperial Endorsement and the Political Climate
The violent acts of the patriotic thugs were not merely spontaneous outbursts but were often tacitly or explicitly encouraged by influential elites. Emperor Kōmei, who reigned during this period, was a staunch opponent of foreign trade and influence. Following the shogunate’s payment of reparations after the Namamugi Incident, he reportedly expressed his fury with a fiery decree: “Even if the imperial nation is reduced to ashes, we shall never open our ports to trade.”
Such imperial rhetoric lent moral legitimacy to the xenophobic violence and deepened divisions within the ruling class. It also complicated the shogunate’s efforts to stabilize foreign relations and modernize Japan.
The Complex Legacy of Nationalist Violence: The Case of Shibusawa Eiichi
Among the young samurai inspired by nationalist fervor was Shibusawa Eiichi, who would later be known as the “father of Japanese capitalism.” Early in his life, Shibusawa was an ardent supporter of the sonnō jōi movement, which advocated violent resistance to foreign influence.
He and his comrades even planned a bold armed uprising to seize Takasaki Castle and then attack the foreign settlement in Yokohama, intending to eliminate all foreigners there. The plan, however, was aborted due to internal disagreements before it could be executed.
Shibusawa’s later transformation from militant nationalist to capitalist pioneer underscores the complex evolution of Japan’s modernization process. It also illustrates how early nationalist violence was both a symptom of resistance to change and a catalyst for Japan’s eventual redefinition as a modern nation.
The Social Impact: Persecution of “Traitors” and Western Scholars
The reign of the patriotic thugs was not only dangerous to foreigners but also to Japanese citizens who engaged with Western knowledge and commerce. Merchants trading with foreigners often closed their shops to avoid harassment. Western scholars and translators, who introduced new ideas and technologies, lived under constant threat.
The samurai radicals labeled these individuals as “traitors” and “sellouts,” accusing them of betraying Japan by embracing foreign ideas. This persecution fostered an atmosphere of fear and suspicion that stifled intellectual exchange and complicated Japan’s modernization efforts.
Broader Reflections: Xenophobia, Nationalism, and the Dynamics of Power
The phenomenon of violent xenophobia directed at powerless intellectuals and merchants is not unique to Japan but reflects broader patterns observed in societies undergoing rapid transformation. Often, those who claim to defend the nation’s honor resort to attacking the most vulnerable rather than confronting entrenched power structures.
As noted by the Chinese writer Lu Xun, “The coward is angry but draws his sword on the weaker.” This dynamic reveals both the irrationality and the cowardice underlying extreme nationalist violence.
Conclusion: From Turmoil to Transformation
The era of Japan’s “patriotic thugs” was a tumultuous chapter in the country’s history, characterized by violent resistance to foreign influence amid profound social and political change. While these nationalist samurai sought to preserve Japan’s traditional identity, their actions paradoxically hastened the collapse of the old order.
The shogunate’s inability to control these violent elements, combined with external pressures and internal reforms, eventually led to the Meiji Restoration—a period of rapid modernization and industrialization that transformed Japan into a major world power.
Today, this era serves as a cautionary tale about the perils of xenophobia and the complex interplay between patriotism and violence. It also reminds us that national identity and progress often emerge through painful struggles, negotiation, and the redefinition of what it means to be a nation in a globalized world.