From Ancient Ji City to Mongol Capital

The story of Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) as a premier capital city spans millennia of Chinese history. This strategic location first gained prominence as Ji, capital of the Yan state during the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 BCE). Through successive dynasties, it transformed under different names – Youcheng during Han, Youzhou in Tang, and Nanjing Youdufu under the Liao dynasty. The Jurchen Jin dynasty renamed it Zhongdu (Central Capital) after conquering the Liao in 1153.

The city’s fate took a dramatic turn in the 13th century when Mongol forces under Genghis Khan’s successors captured Zhongdu in 1215. Initially called Yanjing, then restored to Zhongdu, the city’s destiny would be forever altered by a visionary Mongol noble named Batu Lu. Recognizing the site’s unparalleled strategic advantages – commanding the Central Plains while linking to northern grasslands – he convinced Kublai Khan to establish his capital there, noting its position allowed rulers to “receive tribute from all directions.”

Kublai Khan’s Imperial Vision

In 1272, Kublai Khan made the momentous decision to rebuild the city as Dadu (Great Capital), marking the formal establishment of the Yuan dynasty’s imperial seat. The construction followed meticulous planning – a 60-li circumference wall with 11 gates, corner towers, and wide moats. At its heart stood the magnificent imperial palace complex covering approximately 9 li, surrounded by government offices including the Central Secretariat, Bureau of Military Affairs, and Censorate.

The city became a cosmopolitan marvel, housing 400,000-1,000,000 residents from diverse backgrounds – Han Chinese, Mongols, Semu people (Central Asians), and international visitors including merchants, envoys, and missionaries. As the northern hub of commerce and handicrafts, Khanbaliq’s prosperity relied heavily on grain shipments from the south via the Grand Canal, creating what historians describe as a “consumption city” dependent on external supplies.

Cultural Crossroads of Eurasia

Khanbaliq emerged as Eurasia’s most dazzling multicultural center. The Yuan court established prestigious institutions like the Hanlin Academy and National University, while collecting cultural treasures and scholars from conquered Southern Song territories. The city’s religious landscape reflected Mongol tolerance, with Buddhist temples, Islamic mosques, and Christian churches standing side by side.

This cosmopolitan atmosphere attracted figures like Marco Polo, who marveled at the city’s splendor in his travels. The imperial court became a stage for cultural exchange, where Persian astronomers worked alongside Chinese scholars, and Tibetan Buddhist rituals mingled with Confucian ceremonies.

The Beginning of the End

By the 1360s, the Yuan dynasty showed signs of collapse. Peasant rebellions disrupted vital southern grain shipments, causing severe famine in the capital. As Ming forces advanced, the last Yuan emperor, Toghon Temür, faced an impossible choice – fight or flee. His advisors referenced the Jin dynasty’s disastrous retreat south in 1214 as a cautionary tale, but the emperor ultimately chose flight.

On July 28, 1368, Toghon Temür abandoned Khanbaliq with his imperial household and remaining loyal troops. Contemporary sources debate the numbers – Mongol chronicles claim either “60,000” or “100,000” soldiers accompanied him, likely exaggerated figures reflecting traditional Mongol military organization.

The Fall of a Great Capital

Left undefended, Khanbaliq fell to Ming general Xu Da on August 2, 1368. The conquest was remarkably bloodless – most Yuan officials either surrendered or fled. Those who remained, like 83-year-old regent Tiemuer Buhua, chose martyrdom over surrender, earning posthumous reverence in Mongol histories similar to Song loyalist Wen Tianxiang.

The Ming victors systematically dismantled Yuan symbols while preserving the city’s infrastructure. They renamed the city Beiping (Northern Peace), modified its layout for defense, and established new administrative structures. Contemporary accounts praised Xu Da’s restraint, comparing his conduct to Song dynasty general Cao Bin’s humane conquest of Nanjing.

Legacy of a Vanished Capital

Khanbaliq’s fall marked the symbolic end of Mongol rule in China, though Yuan remnants persisted in Mongolia. The city’s loss haunted Mongol consciousness for centuries, as evidenced by poetic laments attributed to Toghon Temür and later Mongol leaders’ attempts to recreate the capital’s glory, like Altan Khan’s 16th century Hohhot construction.

For the Ming, capturing Khanbaliq represented more than military victory – it signified the restoration of Han Chinese rule after nearly a century of foreign domination. Official Ming chronicles and celebratory music commemorated the event as a cultural renaissance, “washing away a century of pollution.”

The city’s transformation from Yuan capital to Ming regional center illustrates what historian Chen Yinke called the “capital complex” – the profound symbolic importance of controlling historic political centers in establishing legitimacy, a phenomenon seen across Eurasian civilizations from Rome to Constantinople.

Khanbaliq’s dramatic history – from glittering world capital to abandoned imperial city – encapsulates the Yuan dynasty’s spectacular rise and precipitous fall, while foreshadowing Beijing’s enduring geopolitical significance in Chinese history.