The Making of a Ming Loyalist

The mid-17th century witnessed the dramatic collapse of China’s Ming Dynasty, as Manchu forces swept southward to establish the Qing regime. Amid this turmoil, one figure emerged as the most formidable maritime resistance leader: Zheng Chenggong, better known in the West as Koxinga. Born in 1624 to Zheng Zhilong—a pirate-turned-Ming admiral—and his Japanese wife Tagawa Matsu, young Zheng Chenggong embodied the transnational networks of East Asia’s coastal world.

Educated in Confucian classics at Nanjing’s Imperial Academy, Zheng’s life took a decisive turn in 1645 when the Ming prince Zhu Yujian granted him the imperial surname “Zhu” and the name “Chenggong” (meaning “success”) for his loyalty. This honor came with devastating responsibility after the Qing captured Fujian in 1646. His father’s surrender and subsequent abduction to Beijing, coupled with the rape and suicide of his mother by Qing troops, transformed the scholar into a warrior. At just 23, Zheng Chenggong vowed to restore the Ming, launching a resistance that would span decades.

Forging a Maritime Empire

From his base in Xiamen (Amoy) and Kinmen, Zheng masterfully blended naval warfare with commercial enterprise. By 1650, he had consolidated control over rival fleets, commanding 40,000 troops and a trading network that funded his campaigns. His innovations included:

– Military-Industrial Complex: Establishing arsenals producing European-style firearms, grenades, and the iconic rattan shields
– Iron Troops: Elite units clad in 30-pound full-body armor, inspired by Qing cavalry tactics
– Naval Supremacy: A 3,000-vessel fleet combining Chinese junk designs with Dutch naval technology

The 1653 Battle of Haicheng showcased Zheng’s resilience. After enduring three days of relentless Qing artillery barrages—forcing his men to shelter in underground tunnels—he staged a brilliant counterattack using buried “land mines” to repel the invaders.

The Yangtze Campaign: A Missed Opportunity

In 1659, Zheng launched his most ambitious campaign: a 100,000-strong amphibious assault up the Yangtze River toward Nanjing. His forces:

1. Decimated Qing defenses at Guazhou by cutting their riverine “Iron Dragon” chains
2. Crushed elite Banner cavalry at Zhenjiang’s Silver Mountain through combined arms tactics
3. Captured 40+ cannons from the demolished “Manchu Wooden Forts”

Yet fatal hesitation at Nanjing’s gates proved catastrophic. As Zheng delayed his assault for weeks, Qing reinforcements poured in. The subsequent Battle of Guanyin Mountain saw Qing troops using innovative “linked clubs” to dismantle Zheng’s armored units, while wind-blown gunpowder smoke blinded his artillery. The retreat cost 5,000 lives and marked the end of Ming restoration hopes.

Legacy: From Anti-Qing Icon to Taiwanese National Hero

Though his mainland campaigns failed, Zheng’s 1661 conquest of Dutch-held Taiwan created a lasting legacy:

– Economic Model: Maintained the Zheng family’s “maritime kingdom” through intra-Asian trade
– Cultural Symbol: Became worshiped as a deity in Taiwan and coastal Fujian
– Political Precedent: His Taiwan administration (1661-1683) foreshadowed later cross-strait dynamics

The Qing’s brutal “Great Clearance” policy—forcibly evacuating coastal populations—failed to eradicate his influence. Today, Zheng Chenggong remains a contested symbol: celebrated in China as a patriot, in Taiwan as a founding figure, and in Japan as a multicultural icon of the East Asian maritime world. His blend of naval innovation, adaptive tactics, and unyielding resistance continues to inspire discussions about coastal defense and hybrid warfare in Asian history.