The Rise of a Merchant-Turned-Statesman

In the waning years of the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), Lü Buwei emerged as one of the most fascinating political figures in Chinese history. A wealthy merchant from the state of Wey, Lü recognized early that political influence could yield greater profits than commerce. His fate became intertwined with the Qin royal family when he encountered Yiren, a Qin prince held hostage in Zhao.

Lü’s masterstroke was investing in Yiren’s political future—a gamble that paid off spectacularly when Yiren became King Zhuangxiang of Qin. As part of this scheme, Lü had gifted his favorite concubine Zhao Ji to Yiren, a decision that would haunt him for decades. When Yiren died prematurely in 247 BCE, leaving Zhao Ji as dowager queen and their 13-year-old son Ying Zheng (the future Qin Shi Huang) as king, Lü became chancellor and regent, effectively ruling the most powerful state in China.

The Forbidden Affair and Its Consequences

The widowed Zhao Ji, still in her prime, rekindled her relationship with Lü Buwei. This dangerous liaison placed the chancellor in an impossible position:

1. Time Constraints: As de facto ruler of Qin, Lü lacked the leisure for romantic entanglements
2. Political Peril: The young king’s growing awareness threatened exposure
3. Emotional Baggage: Their shared history—Lü having originally “gifted” Zhao Ji to Yiren—added psychological complexity

Historical records suggest Lü’s nightmares about execution reflected genuine terror. The Records of the Grand Historian notes he “awoke in cold sweat, his beard standing on end,” realizing this affair could destroy him.

The Fatal Substitute: Introducing Lao Ai

Lü’s solution was both ingenious and disastrous. His retainers identified Lao Ai, a street performer famed for his… unusual physical endowment (reportedly able to rotate chariot wheels with his genitalia). After verifying these claims (the Shiji describes Lü’s “eyes bulging in astonishment”), Lü orchestrated an elaborate ruse:

– Fake castration documents
– Secret introduction to Zhao Ji’s court
– Gradual replacement of Lü in the queen’s affections

This scheme initially succeeded beyond expectations. Lao Ai’s sexual prowess made Zhao Ji forget Lü entirely, while the chancellor regained his political focus. However, the solution birthed a greater problem.

The Rise of a Pretender

Lao Ai proved no mere plaything. With Zhao Ji’s influence, he acquired:

– Title: Marquis of Changxin (长信侯)
– Land: Fiefdom in Taiyuan
– Followers: Over 1,000 retainers and slaves
– Political Network: Allies including the Neishi (内史, capital administrator)

By 238 BCE, Lao Ai’s drunken boast—”I am the king’s stepfather!”—reached Ying Zheng’s ears. The 23-year-old monarch, though long suspicious, now had confirmation of both the affair and rumors that Zhao Ji had borne Lao Ai two sons.

The Coup That Backfired

Lao Ai and Zhao Ji’s subsequent plot reveals their political naivety:

1. Bait: Convince Ying Zheng to leave咸阳 for his long-delayed冠礼 (coming-of-age ceremony) at Yong
2. Seize Power: Use forged seals to mobilize capital troops during his absence
3. Eliminate Ying Zheng: Replace him with one of Lao Ai’s sons

Ying Zheng played along perfectly. The Shiji records his theatrical resistance: “My health is poor; let mother and chancellor continue governing.” Only after Zhao Ji’s “command” did he reluctantly agree—while secretly preparing his counterstroke.

The Fall of Lao Ai

The rebellion collapsed spectacularly:

– Military Blunder: Lao Ai’s forces panicked when Ying Zheng’s troops attacked unexpectedly
– Abandoned Allies: Capital garrison troops switched loyalty upon seeing the king
– Gruesome End: Lao Ai was torn apart by chariots; his supporters exterminated

Ying Zheng’s handling of the aftermath demonstrated his political genius:

1. Merciless Purge: Executed Lao Ai’s entire faction and their families
2. Symbolic Matricide: Banished Zhao Ji to Yong, vowing never to see her again
3. Strategic Restraint: Temporarily spared Lü Buwei, recognizing his continued usefulness

The Unraveling of Lü Buwei

Though uninvolved in the coup, Lü’s original sin—introducing Lao Ai—sealed his fate. Ying Zheng gradually stripped him of power before exiling him to Sichuan in 235 BCE. The disgraced chancellor, knowing death awaited, chose suicide by poison.

Legacy: The Making of an Emperor

This scandal proved pivotal for Chinese history:

1. Centralization of Power: Ying Zheng eliminated all rivals, enabling his 221 BCE unification of China
2. Legalist Precedent: The ruthless suppression set patterns for Qin governance
3. Historical Paradigm: Became a cautionary tale about court intrigue for later dynasties

The Shiji’s account, while possibly embellished, reveals deeper truths about power dynamics in ancient China. Ying Zheng’s triumph over both his mother’s lover and his mentor shaped the temperament of China’s first emperor—a ruler who would burn books and bury scholars alive, yet also standardize writing, currency, and measurements across his new empire.

Ultimately, Lü Buwei’s story exemplifies how personal relationships could alter the course of history in pre-imperial China. His merchant’s gamble brought him to the pinnacle of power, yet his inability to control the forces he unleashed transformed a business calculation into a death sentence—and inadvertently forged the iron will of the man who would create imperial China.