From Han Splendor to Three Kingdoms Turmoil

During the socially tumultuous period spanning the Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties (220-589 CE), Luoyang endured the violent storms of history. When Emperor Wen of Wei, Cao Pi, forced the abdication of the Han dynasty in 220 CE to establish the Wei state, Luoyang became the capital of successive Wei and Jin dynasties. The Yongjia Disturbances (307-313 CE) that destroyed the Western Jin dynasty ended Sima clan rule over northern China, after which the city fell under control of Liu Yao and Shi Le. The Eastern Jin emperors based south of the Yangtze and Emperor Wu of the Liu Song dynasty launched northern expeditions attempting to recapture Luoyang, but the city remained mired in endless warfare.

After the Northern Wei unified northern China, Emperor Xiaowen moved the capital back to Luoyang in 495 CE. However, by the late Northern Wei period, intense factional struggles within the ruling class led to the empire’s division into Eastern and Western Wei in 534 CE, with new capitals established at Ye and Chang’an respectively. Luoyang once again became contested territory. Though Emperor Xuan of Northern Zhou later moved six prefectural offices to Luozhou and Emperor Wen of Sui established the Henan Circuit administration there, these efforts failed to reverse the city’s decline. By 632 CE during the Tang dynasty, Luoyang County was relocated to the new Sui-Tang Luoyang city, leaving the old capital abandoned in ruins.

Architectural Transformations of a Capital

Over its 130 years as a capital, successive regimes – especially Cao Wei and Northern Wei – conducted large-scale renovations and reconstructions to transform the war-torn former capital into a thriving imperial city. The rebuilt Luoyang expanded in size, gained distinctive new architecture, and underwent fundamental layout changes.

### The Shift to a Single Palace Complex

Unlike Eastern Han Luoyang’s dual northern and southern palace system, archaeological surveys confirm the Northern Wei capital had just one palace complex in the city’s north-central section. This palace occupied what was likely the site of the Han northern palace, situated north of the east-west avenue between Dongyang Gate and Xiyang Gate. The rectangular palace complex measured approximately 1,398 meters north-south and 660 meters east-west, covering about one-tenth of the inner city area.

The palace’s main southern gate, Changhe Gate, featured an enormous 46-meter-wide entrance – the city’s largest. Inside, archaeologists have identified 20-30 foundation platforms along a central north-south axis, with the largest (100 x 60 meters) believed to be the foundation of the main Taiji Hall. The area north of the palace complex contained few structures, likely serving as imperial gardens.

### The Strategic Jincheng Fortress

Beginning in the Cao Wei period under Emperor Ming, construction began on the fortified Jincheng complex in the northwest corner – the city’s highest ground overlooking the palace. This defensive structure, inspired by Cao Cao’s Bronze Bird Tower complex at Ye, became increasingly important over time.

The Jincheng consisted of three interconnected walled sections forming an “eye” shape about 1,048 meters long and 255 meters wide. Massive walls 12-13 meters thick enclosed the complex, which contained over 20 building foundations, roads, and pools. The southern section dates to Wei-Jin times, while the northern additions were Northern Wei constructions.

### The Northern Wei Outer Walls

Under Northern Wei rule, Luoyang expanded dramatically beyond its Han-Jin walls. Historical records describe the new outer walls creating a capital “20 li east-west and 15 li north-south” (about 9 x 7 km). Archaeological surveys have traced remnants of these outer walls:

– The eastern wall ran about 3,500 meters east of the old city, with surviving segments 8-13 meters thick
– The winding western wall followed the Fenjinggou stream, with sections 7-12 meters thick
– The northern wall on Mangshan’s southern slopes stood about 850 meters north of the old walls

The expanded city’s road system extended the inner city’s grid outward. Major avenues connected the outer gates, including a massive 90-100 meter wide canal road east of Jianchun Gate that likely served as a grain transport route.

Life in Northern Wei Luoyang

The expanded capital developed distinct functional zones:

The Inner City became increasingly administrative, with the western market removed and most temples relocated outside. Government offices, gardens, and ponds proliferated around the palace. Key complexes included:

– Offices lining both sides of the central Copper Camel Street
– The Henan administration and granaries east of the palace
– Military offices and stables to the west
– The imperial Fanglin Garden to the north

The Outer City became the primary residential and commercial area, featuring three major markets:

– The western Great Market with surrounding artisan quarters
– The eastern Small Market
– The southern Sitong Market near foreign enclaves

Other specialized districts included the tax collection center outside Jianchun Gate and the elite Shouqiu residential area in the far west.

Luoyang’s Enduring Legacy

Luoyang’s innovative urban planning influenced later Chinese capitals in several key ways:

1. The clear north-south central axis organizing major structures
2. The separation of palace, administrative, and residential zones
3. The use of outer walls to encompass expanding populations

The Northern Wei Luoyang’s layout directly inspired the designs of Sui-Tang Chang’an and Luoyang. Even the positioning of Luoyang’s palace in the northwest corner of the Sui-Tang city may have drawn from the strategic placement of Jincheng.

As the political center of northern China for over a century, Luoyang witnessed the complex interplay of military conquest, ethnic integration, and cultural flourishing during one of China’s most dynamic historical periods. Its rise and fall encapsulates the turbulent transition from Han unity through division to eventual Sui-Tang reunification.