The Warring States Legacy and Qin’s Legalist Experiment

The intellectual landscape of pre-imperial China reached its zenith during the Warring States period (475-221 BCE), when the “Hundred Schools of Thought” engaged in vigorous philosophical debates. By the late Warring States era, four major schools had emerged as particularly influential: Confucianism, Mohism, Daoism, and Legalism. The First Emperor Qin Shi Huang unified China in 221 BCE through Legalist principles, which emphasized strict laws, centralized control, and harsh punishments. His infamous “Burning of Books” in 213 BCE targeted philosophical texts that challenged Legalist orthodoxy, demonstrating the profound impact of intellectual currents on political power.

However, the Qin dynasty’s collapse in 206 BCE and the subsequent Han founding created new philosophical dynamics. Mohism—with its ideals of “universal love” (兼爱) and “non-aggression” (非攻)—had never gained traction among rulers and retreated to peasant communities. Legalism became thoroughly discredited due to its association with Qin’s tyranny. This left Confucianism and Daoism as the primary contenders for intellectual supremacy during the early Han period.

Huang-Lao Daoism’s Ascendancy in the Early Han

The early Han dynasty (202 BCE-9 CE) witnessed the dominance of Huang-Lao Daoism, a syncretic philosophy combining Laozi’s teachings with mythical Yellow Emperor lore. Its emphasis on “non-action” (无为) and minimalist governance resonated with postwar recovery needs. As the Daodejing advised:

> “The soft overcomes the hard; the weak overcomes the strong.”

This philosophy found practical expression through Chancellor Cao Can (曹参), a devoted Huang-Lao adherent. Upon becoming Prime Minister in 193 BCE, he famously maintained all policies of his predecessor Xiao He unchanged while indulging in daily wine-drinking—a performance of Daoist “non-interference.” When challenged by Emperor Hui, Cao Can retorted:

> “Since Your Majesty cannot surpass Emperor Gaozu, and I cannot surpass Xiao He, why change what they established?”

The people celebrated this approach with a rhyme:

> “Xiao He made laws, clear as carved lines.
> Cao Can succeeded, guarding without change.
> Carrying their tranquility, the people found peace.”

Huang-Lao’s influence permeated the imperial court through Empress Dowager Dou (窦太后), who mandated its study for royalty while banning rival texts. The philosophy’s appeal lay partly in the Daodejing’s ambiguity—its “subtle words with profound meaning” allowed flexible interpretation to justify various policies.

Confucianism’s Struggle and Eventual Triumph

Confucianism initially fared poorly in the early Han. The school’s emphasis on ritual propriety and hierarchical relationships seemed irrelevant in a war-torn society. Even Confucian scholar Shusun Tong (叔孙通) admitted:

> “Confucian scholars cannot initiate enterprises; they can only preserve achievements.”

Emperor Gaozu (Liu Bang) notoriously urinated into a Confucian scholar’s ceremonial hat, reflecting the school’s marginalization. However, by Emperor Wu’s reign (141-87 BCE), economic recovery created conditions for change. As granaries overflowed and state coffers bulged with unused coins (some with rotting strings), society could “afford折腾” (折腾)—engage in ambitious projects.

The ambitious Emperor Wu found Confucianism’s ceremonial grandeur appealing, particularly its emphasis on:
– Calendar reform
– Ritual vestments
– The Mingtang (明堂) ceremonial hall

The Mingtang’s spatial hierarchy perfectly visualized imperial authority:
1. Emperor seated north-facing on a platform
2. Dukes on central steps
3. Marquises on eastern steps
4. Counts on western steps
5. Minor officials outside gates

In 140 BCE, Emperor Wu appointed Confucian ministers to implement reforms, but Grand Dowager Dou crushed this attempt, executing key Confucian officials. Only after her death in 135 BCE could Emperor Wu fully embrace Confucianism through Dong Zhongshu’s (董仲舒) policy of “dismissing the hundred schools to esteem the Six Classics exclusively.”

The Institutionalization of Confucian Practices

Emperor Wu’s Confucian reforms included enduring innovations:
– Imperial Tours (巡狩): Ritual inspections of the realm
– Fengshan Sacrifices (封禅): Mountain-top imperial legitimacy rites
– Era Names (年号): The 122 BCE “Yuanshou” (元狩) era commemorating a mythical qilin sighting

Era names became Emperor Wu’s most lasting contribution, solving chronological confusion in historical records. Prior dynasties used vague terms like “the 52nd year of the King,” but Han’s systematic era names (建元, 元光, 元朔) created precise dating—a system lasting until 1912.

Zhang Qian’s Western Expeditions and the Silk Road

While consolidating ideological control, Emperor Wu also expanded Han’s geopolitical reach through Zhang Qian’s (张骞) groundbreaking missions (139-126 BCE and 119-115 BCE). Captured by the Xiongnu for a decade, Zhang Qian eventually reached Dayuan (Ferghana), Kangju (Sogdiana), and Daxia (Bactria), bringing back knowledge of Central Asia. Though failing to secure military alliances against the Xiongnu, his journeys:
1. Mapped the Western Regions (西域)
2. Established diplomatic contacts with Wusun (乌孙)
3. Identified potential trade routes

By 115 BCE, regular Han embassies traveled west along what would become the Silk Road—the Eurasian trade network that later facilitated cultural and economic exchanges for centuries.

Conclusion: The Making of Han’s Intellectual Legacy

The early Han’s philosophical evolution—from Huang-Lao pragmatism to Confucian state orthodoxy—reflects how intellectual movements respond to material conditions. Emperor Wu’s reign marked a turning point where:
– Confucianism became inseparable from statecraft
– Han expansionism created enduring international connections
– Institutional innovations (like era names) standardized governance

This transformation shaped Chinese civilization for two millennia, demonstrating how philosophical debates in turbulent times can crystallize into lasting cultural frameworks. The competition between Daoist flexibility and Confucian order during the Han’s formative years ultimately produced a synthesis that defined imperial China’s character.