The Collapse of the Ming Dynasty and the Southern Refuge

In the spring of 1644, the Ming Dynasty faced its darkest hour. Beijing fell to rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, and the Chongzhen Emperor took his own life on Coal Hill, marking the symbolic end of Ming rule in northern China. Amid this chaos, the imperial clan scattered, with many fleeing southward to the traditional secondary capital of Nanjing. The Ming government had long maintained a parallel administrative structure in Nanjing, making it the natural center for resistance and revival.

Among the displaced royals was Zhu Yousong, the Prince of Fu, a cousin of the deceased emperor. His lineage traced back to the Wanli Emperor, giving him a strong claim to the throne. As news of Beijing’s fall reached the Yangtze region, Ming loyalists urgently debated who should lead the resistance. The situation was complicated by uncertainty about the fate of Chongzhen’s three sons—if any had survived, they would have stronger hereditary rights than any collateral prince.

The Controversial Ascension of Zhu Yousong

On April 29, 1644, Zhu Yousong arrived at Nanjing’s Yanzi Rock by boat, accompanied by prominent officials including the respected general Shi Kefa. Contemporary historian Tan Qian recorded vivid details of the prince’s entry into Nanjing on May 1: dressed in modest clothing, waving a simple bamboo fan, Zhu initially projected an image of humble virtue that inspired hope among observers.

The political maneuvering began immediately. Officials hotly debated whether Zhu should immediately ascend as emperor or first assume the title of “Regent” (监国), which would leave room for adjustment if Chongzhen’s sons were found. On May 3, Zhu accepted the regency, issuing a proclamation that balanced humility with determination:

“Having taken refuge in Jianghuai, I was shocked to hear of the tragedy… Though unworthy, I yield to the officials’ urgings that a righteous cause requires leadership. On the third day of the fifth month of the seventeenth year of Chongzhen, I temporarily accept the title of Regent.”

The Power Struggle Behind the Throne

The new government’s initial appointments suggested promise. Shi Kefa became Chief Grand Secretary, while other respected figures like Jiang Yueguang and Wang Duo received key positions. However, this reformist momentum quickly dissipated due to factional infighting.

The crucial conflict emerged between Shi Kefa and the ambitious Ma Shiying, governor of Fengyang. Ma had secretly supported Zhu Yousong’s claim early on, gaining the future emperor’s trust. When Shi Kefa—who had initially opposed Zhu’s ascension—found his position weakening, Ma exploited this vulnerability. Through political maneuvering involving military supporters like the “Four Guardian Generals,” Ma forced Shi Kefa’s removal from Nanjing. By May 12, Shi was effectively exiled to frontier defense duties in Huaiyang, while Ma assumed control of the central government.

The Short-Lived Hongguang Reign

On May 15, Zhu Yousong formally ascended as the Hongguang Emperor. The new regime faced immediate challenges: military threats from both peasant rebels and the rising Qing dynasty, financial difficulties, and deep factional divisions.

Ma Shiying’s administration proved disastrous. He filled government posts with cronies, ignored military preparedness, and engaged in lavish spending while the state faced existential threats. The regime’s legitimacy suffered further when three men claiming to be Chongzhen’s sons appeared—though all were eventually exposed as impostors, the episodes revealed the government’s instability.

By 1645, Qing forces crossed the Yangtze. The Hongguang Emperor fled but was captured near Wuhu and later executed in Beijing. His reign had lasted barely a year.

Why the Southern Ming Failed

Historians have long debated the reasons for this rapid collapse. Traditional narratives blame Ma Shiying’s corruption and the emperor’s incompetence—contemporary accounts describe Zhu Yousong as more interested in theater and pleasure than governance. However, deeper structural issues doomed the regime:

1. The Succession Controversy: Initial doubts about Zhu’s legitimacy created permanent factional rifts.
2. Militarization of Politics: By relying on warlords for support, the court lost control over its own military.
3. Strategic Errors: Focusing on internal rivals rather than unifying against the Qing proved fatal.

As historian Huang Zongxi later observed, Shi Kefa’s early missteps in the succession debate set in motion an irreversible chain of events. Once military commanders gained political leverage through their “merit in establishing the regime,” civilian authority could never recover.

Legacy and Historical Reflection

The Hongguang episode represents more than just a failed restoration. It exemplifies how political fragmentation and short-term maneuvering can undermine existential struggles. The Southern Ming’s later resistance movements—the regimes of the Longwu and Yongli Emperors—learned from these mistakes but never overcame the initial loss of momentum.

Modern assessments suggest that even with better leadership, the Southern Ming faced nearly insurmountable odds against the disciplined Qing forces. However, the speed and manner of its collapse remain cautionary tales about the importance of unity during crises—lessons that resonate far beyond the 17th century.