The Collapse of Wang Mang’s Reforms and the Seeds of Revolt

In the turbulent years following the failed reforms of Wang Mang’s Xin Dynasty (9-23 CE), China faced a perfect storm of suffering. The usurper emperor’s radical policies—including land redistribution and currency changes—had destabilized the economy, while successive natural disasters pushed peasants beyond endurance. Floods drowned crops, droughts parched fields, and locust swarms devoured what little remained.

Historical records from the Hou Hanshu describe villages where “parents could not feed their children, and the roads were littered with starved corpses.” Traditional Confucian scholars viewed these catastrophes as heaven’s punishment for poor governance—a belief that fueled growing dissent. With no relief from the government and local officials demanding impossible taxes, desperate farmers across multiple provinces began organizing resistance.

The Green Woods Rebellion Emerges (17-23 CE)

The spark came in 17 CE when drought ravaged western Hubei. In Xinshi County (modern Jingshan), charismatic leaders Wang Kuang and Wang Feng rallied starving peasants. Their movement grew exponentially—within months, 7,000-8,000 rebels established a base at Lulin Mountain (near modern Dangyang).

This “Green Woods Army” (绿林军) mastered guerrilla tactics in the dense forests. In 21 CE, they annihilated a 20,000-strong government force sent by the Jing Province governor. Victorious, they captured several counties, swelling their ranks to 50,000.

A plague outbreak in 22 CE forced strategic division:
– Wang Chang and Cheng Dan led the “Lower River Force” south
– Wang Kuang and Wang Feng commanded the “New Market Force” northeast
– Chen Mu’s 1,000-strong “Pinglin Force” later merged with them

The Red Eyebrows Uprising in the East (18-25 CE)

Meanwhile in Shandong, former salt merchant Fan Chong launched his rebellion in 18 CE from Ju County. His forces occupied Mount Tai, adopting a terrifying battle tactic—dyeing their eyebrows red with cinnabar pigment. By 22 CE, the “Chimei Army” (赤眉军) defeated a 100,000-strong imperial army, killing General Lian Dan.

The rebellion’s structure was remarkably egalitarian. As historian Hans Bielenstein notes: “They governed through collective councils rather than appointing nobles, reflecting deep peasant distrust of elites.”

The Betrayal and Legacy

In 23 CE, opportunistic Han dynasty descendants Liu Yan and Liu Xiu infiltrated the Lulin movement. After the decisive victory at Kunyang (where 42,000 imperial troops were routed), the rebels installed puppet emperor Liu Xuan—only to be betrayed once Wang Mang fell.

The Chimei Army continued fighting, even installing a 15-year-old cowherd as emperor in 25 CE. But their eventual defeat by Liu Xiu (later Emperor Guangwu) marked the rebellion’s end.

Though the peasant armies failed to retain power, their decade-long struggle forced the new Eastern Han dynasty to implement reforms:
– Land taxes reduced by 30%
– Corrupt officials purged
– Disaster relief systems established

As the Book of Later Han acknowledges: “The specter of peasant fury compelled even emperors to heed the people’s suffering.” The rebellions demonstrated that China’s Mandate of Heaven ultimately rested on the shoulders of those who tilled its soil.

The Broader Historical Context

These uprisings occurred during a pivotal transition between the Western and Eastern Han dynasties. Wang Mang’s interregnum (9-23 CE) had disrupted the traditional social order:

Economic Factors
– State monopolies on iron and salt crippled small producers
– Inflation from poorly managed currency reforms
– Land concentration by aristocrats left peasants tenant farming

Military Weakness
– The Han conscription system had decayed
– Regional governors held disproportionate power
– Mercenary armies became loyal to commanders, not the throne

Philosophical Shifts
– Rising influence of Daoist millenarian beliefs
– Confucian scholars divided over reform ideologies
– Portents and omens increasingly used as political tools

The rebellions’ lasting impact reshaped Chinese governance for centuries. Subsequent dynasties would study this period as both a cautionary tale about peasant discontent and a blueprint for revolutionary change.