The Emergence of a New Steppe Power

In the mid-6th century, as the Rouran Khaganate—once the dominant force across the Mongolian steppe—began its irreversible decline, a new power emerged from the shadow of the Altai Mountains. The Turks, originally serving as blacksmiths for the Rouran, seized their moment when the balance of power shifted dramatically across Northeast Asia.

Their rise was catalyzed by two pivotal events in 552 CE: First, their leader Bumin Qaghan defeated the Rouran, declaring himself “Illig Qaghan” and establishing the First Turkic Khaganate. Second, simultaneous attacks from Northern Qi’s Emperor Wenxuan—whose notorious military campaigns devastated multiple nomadic groups—fatally weakened the Rouran. Within three years, this once-mighty confederation vanished from history, leaving the Turks as undisputed masters of the steppe.

The Sui-Turkic Confrontation

By 582 CE, the Turkic Khaganate had grown alarmingly powerful under Taspar Qaghan, who famously boasted of treating the emperors of Northern Zhou and Northern Qi as his “obedient sons.” When Emperor Wen of Sui unified China and ceased the traditional tributary payments, the Turks retaliated with a massive invasion. Historical records suggest their forces numbered 400,000 cavalry—a figure reflecting their confederation’s strength rather than a centralized army.

The invasion devastated Sui’s northern frontiers, with chroniclers describing scenes where “all six domestic animals perished” across multiple commanderies. Yet the Turkic campaign collapsed not through military defeat, but internal discord—a vulnerability the Sui would exploit masterfully.

The Art of Steppe Diplomacy

Emperor Wen’s advisor Zhangsun Sheng—a polymath who had lived among the Turks—devised a strategy that would define China’s nomadic relations for centuries:

1. Divide and Rule: Exploiting succession disputes between Taspar’s nephews Shetu (Eastern Qaghan) and Apa (Western Qaghan)
2. Proxy Warfare: Supporting rival factions like Tuli Qaghan to create perpetual internal conflict
3. Cultural Leverage: Using marriage alliances (like Princess Qianjin) as both carrot and stick

The strategy bore fruit in 583 CE when Sui forces, combined with a Turkic smallpox epidemic, shattered the confederation’s unity. Apa’s defection to the Sui—after his mother was killed by Shetu—marked the permanent division into Eastern and Western Khaganates.

The Puppet Khaganate

By 599 CE, the Sui established complete dominance through Qimin Qaghan, a Turkic ruler fully dependent on Chinese support. Installed near modern Hohhot with Sui troops guarding his territory, Qimin’s submission letter epitomized the new order:

“The Sui’s Sage Khan nurtures all under heaven like the encompassing sky and supporting earth. Your servant Qimin revives like leaves on dead wood, flesh on dry bones, pledging to serve the Sui for ten thousand generations as herder and horseman.”

This “Sage Khan” (圣人可汗) title foreshadowed the later “Heavenly Khan” (天可汗) system used by Tang Taizong.

The Enduring Legacy

The Sui’s Turkic policy succeeded where brute force had failed for centuries:

1. Institutional Memory: Tang emperors inherited this playbook—Li Shimin’s dealings with Eastern Turks (629 CE) mirrored Sui tactics
2. Geopolitical Blueprint: The “use barbarians to control barbarians” model became standard for managing steppe relations
3. Cultural Impact: Turkic auxiliaries integrated into Chinese military systems, influencing tactics and equipment

Zhangsun Sheng’s daughter would later marry Li Shimin, ensuring this strategic wisdom passed directly to the Tang dynasty’s architect. The Sui’s forgotten statecraft—often overshadowed by its canals and short reign—created the foundation for China’s most cosmopolitan golden age.

As steppe winds howled across the Ordos in 615 CE, the lessons of this confrontation still echoed. When Shibi Qaghan trapped Emperor Yang with 100,000 cavalry at Yanmen Pass, it wasn’t Sui military might that saved the day—but another Turkic faction’s intervention, precisely as the Sui’s divide-and-rule system predicted. The nomads could win battles, but the game of thrones would forever favor those who mastered the art of steppe diplomacy.