From Humble Beginnings to Imperial Power

The political landscape of the Western Han Dynasty underwent a dramatic transformation during the reigns of Emperors Xuan, Yuan, and Cheng, as imperial relatives (外戚) emerged as dominant forces in court politics. Emperor Xuan’s early life in exile made him deeply reliant on the protection of his maternal relatives—the Shi clan—and his wife’s family, the Xu clan. After the powerful regent Huo Guang’s death, Emperor Xuan strategically elevated members of these families to counterbalance the lingering influence of the Huo faction.

When the Huo clan was ultimately purged, Emperor Xuan fully empowered the Shi and Xu families, establishing a pattern where imperial relatives became key players in stabilizing imperial authority. This trend intensified when Emperor Xuan rediscovered his long-lost maternal Wang relatives, incorporating them into his network of trusted kin. These three families—Shi, Xu, and Wang—would dominate court politics for decades, their rivalries and alliances shaping the dynasty’s final century.

The Four Great Clans and Their Struggles

By Emperor Cheng’s reign, four major consort families—two Wang branches (Emperor Xuan’s maternal relatives and Emperor Cheng’s mother’s clan), the Shi, and the Xu—controlled the court. Their competition followed a predictable trajectory:

The Xu clan, despite producing Emperor Xuan’s empress, fell first. Emperor Cheng’s disdain for his Xu empress (forced upon him by his father) and the machinations of Wang Feng (of the dominant Wang clan) led to the family’s disgrace. In 18 BCE, after trumped-up charges of witchcraft, the Xu empress was deposed, her male relatives exiled, and the clan erased from power.

Next came the downfall of Emperor Xuan’s maternal Wang relatives. Wang Shang, their respected leader, became a target when he refused Wang Feng’s nepotistic demands. Exploiting a solar eclipse as “heavenly disapproval,” Wang Feng and ally Shi Dan orchestrated Wang Shang’s removal in 25 BCE. His death—reportedly from rage-induced hemorrhage—marked the end of this Wang branch’s influence.

The Shi clan’s decline was more gradual. With Shi Dan aging and disengaged, their power waned naturally. By the time of Shi Dan’s death, only the Wang clan (Emperor Cheng’s maternal relatives) remained standing—a victory ensured by their ultimate trump card: the Empress Dowager Wang Zhengjun.

Wang Zhengjun: The Matriarch Behind the Dynasty

Wang Zhengjun’s rise reads like imperial fortune. A minor palace attendant, she caught Crown Emperor Yuan’s eye and conceived the future Emperor Cheng after a single encounter—a miraculous event given the crown prince’s prior childlessness. Her son’s birth delighted the aging Emperor Xuan, who personally named the boy Liu Ao (骜, “the Noble Steed”) and doted on him.

As empress dowager, Wang Zhengjun methodically elevated her family. Seven of her eight brothers received marquisates, creating an unprecedented concentration of power. Her brother Wang Feng’s appointment as Commander-in-Chief (大司马大将军) in 30 BCE formalized Wang dominance. Even Emperor Cheng found his authority constrained—when he attempted to appoint the scholar Liu Xin without consulting Wang Feng, the furious regent forced him to rescind the order.

The Puppet Masters and Their Puppet

Wang Feng’s death in 22 BCE passed power to his brothers Wang Yin, Wang Shang (different from the earlier Wang Shang), and Wang Gen in succession. By 8 BCE, with Wang Gen aging and the next generation deemed unfit, an unlikely candidate emerged: Wang Mang.

Unlike his decadent cousins, Wang Mang cultivated an image of Confucian virtue—studious, frugal, and filial. His meticulous care for the dying Wang Feng earned his family’s gratitude, launching his political career. As Superintendent of the Imperial Household (光禄大夫), Wang Mang distributed imperial gifts to win popular support while quietly eliminating rivals like the influential Chunyu Chang through calculated scandals.

By 8 BCE, Wang Mang assumed the regent’s mantle at just 38. His reign marked both the apex of Wang power and the beginning of its unraveling.

The Dynasty’s Twilight and Wang Mang’s Usurpation

Emperor Cheng’s death without heirs in 7 BCE triggered a succession crisis. Wang Mang initially backed Liu Xin of Dingtao but faced opposition when Liu Xin’s grandmother Consort Fu demanded equal status with Empress Dowager Wang. Forced into temporary retirement, Wang Mang bided his time while the new Emperor Ai’s favorites (notably his alleged lover Dong Xian) mismanaged the empire.

Emperor Ai’s death in 1 BCE returned Wang Mang to power. Installing the child Emperor Ping as a puppet, Wang Mang systematically eliminated rivals—exiling the Fu and Ding clans, executing critics, and marrying his daughter to the boy emperor. His theatrical displays of Confucian virtue (including accepting the title “Duke Giving Tranquility to the Han” 安汉公) masked ruthless ambition.

In 8 CE, after manufacturing omens and suppressing rebellions, Wang Mang declared himself emperor of the Xin Dynasty. His reign—marked by disastrous currency reforms, failed land nationalization, and mishandled foreign relations—collapsed within 15 years under peasant revolts like the Red Eyebrows and Green Woodsmen.

Legacy of the Imperial Relatives System

The Wang clan’s century-long dominance exemplifies how Western Han emperors increasingly relied on maternal kin to counterbalance bureaucratic factions. While initially stabilizing, this system created parallel power structures that ultimately undermined imperial authority. Wang Mang’s usurption—enabled by his family’s entrenched position—demonstrated the system’s dangers.

Historically, the Wang interregnum serves as a cautionary tale about the unintended consequences of kinship politics and the perils of radical reform divorced from practical realities. Their story remains etched in China’s collective memory as both a zenith of consort clan influence and a prelude to imperial renewal under the Eastern Han.