The Turbulent Backdrop of Late Qin Dynasty

In the waning years of the Qin Dynasty, as news spread of Qin forces pressing from both north and south, the Zhao rebellion in Hebei province grew increasingly bold. Since Chen Sheng’s initial uprising plunged the empire into chaos, Zhang Han’s suppression forces had been primarily engaged in central plains campaigns, leaving the Zhao, Yan and Qi regions untouched by Qin’s main armies. This strategic vacuum allowed rebellion to fester for nearly a year, with former Zhao territories becoming the most volatile region.

Among the rebellious warlords, only the Hebei Zhao army managed to seize Handan – the ancient Zhao capital – establishing it as their power base. This development created two major centers of resistance: the Zhao restorationists basing their legitimacy on occupying the old capital, and the Chu restorationists legitimizing their cause through reinstating the old royal family. These twin rebellions would become the most significant threats to Qin authority.

The Rise of Zhao’s Rebellion

The Zhao region witnessed two successive restorationist kings – Wu Chen and Zhao Xie – both mediocre figures who might have remained insignificant without capable advisors. The true architects of Zhao’s resurgence were Chancellor Zhang Er and General Chen Yu. Both men hailed from Daliang in former Wei territory, renowned in their youth for talent and Confucian learning, forming what appeared to be an unbreakable bond.

After Qin’s unification, the pair traveled throughout the central plains, secretly connecting with restorationist elements among old aristocratic families. Their activities earned them substantial bounties – 1,000 and 500 gold pieces respectively – from Qin authorities. When Chen Sheng’s forces captured Chen City, Zhang and Chen had just returned from a gathering of six-state aristocratic descendants at Zhenze Marsh and promptly joined the rebellion.

At a critical juncture when Chen Sheng’s advisors urged him to declare himself king, Zhang Er and Chen Yu proposed a cunning alternative strategy: avoid immediate kingship (which would appear self-serving) and instead focus on two key objectives – a swift western campaign against Qin and dispatching forces to restore the six states’ royal houses. Their elaborate argument claimed this approach would simultaneously build alliances and divide Qin’s forces, making eventual victory inevitable.

However, the blunt Chen Sheng surprisingly saw through their scheme, ignored their advice, and declared himself king anyway. Frustrated but lacking alternatives, Zhang and Chen devised another plan to request northern campaigns in Zhao territory. With cautious approval from Chen Sheng, they secured command of 3,000 troops under nominal leadership of Wu Chen, with Zhang and Chen as subordinate commanders holding real operational control.

The Expansion of Zhao Forces

Through vigorous recruitment and persuasive rhetoric targeting local elites, Zhang Er and Chen Yu rapidly expanded their forces, capturing ten Zhao cities within months and swelling their ranks to tens of thousands. Their recruitment speeches, preserved in Records of the Grand Historian, became famous examples of anti-Qin propaganda:

“For decades, Qin’s chaotic governance and cruel punishments have devastated the land! From the Great Wall conscription in north to Five Ridges garrisons in south, the empire convulses with unrest. Exhausted people face exorbitant taxes while suffering under harsh laws that tear families apart. Now Chen Wang has raised the banner of rebellion across two thousand li of Chu territory, with Wu Guang and Zhou Wen leading a million troops west against Qin. This is the moment for heroes to achieve nobility! The world has long suffered under Qin – join us to overthrow this tyranny, avenge your ancestors, and carve your own domains!”

This masterful propaganda contained significant exaggerations – Zhou Wen’s forces never approached a million, Chen Sheng controlled nowhere near two thousand li, and Qin’s military financing was more complex than simple grain levies. Yet its emotional appeal proved devastatingly effective in rallying support.

Internal Strife and Power Struggles

As Zhao forces expanded without facing Qin’s main armies, Zhang and Chen persuaded Wu Chen to declare himself King of Zhao, with Chen Yu as general and Zhang Er as right chancellor. When news reached Chen Sheng, furious debates ensued about whether to recognize this rival kingdom. Ultimately, pragmatic considerations prevailed – acknowledging Zhao while pressuring it to join the western campaign against Qin.

However, Zhang and Chen revealed their true colors by advising the new Zhao king against cooperating with Chen Sheng: “If Chen Sheng destroys Qin, he’ll turn on Zhao next. We should expand our own territories instead.” This treachery set the pattern for subsequent betrayals among restorationist leaders.

The Zhao court soon fractured further when Han Guang, sent to conquer former Yan territories, declared himself King of Yan instead. When Zhao forces marched north to punish this betrayal, King Wu Chen was captured during a hunting trip. Only the clever intervention of a low-ranking soldier secured his release through psychological manipulation of the Yan leadership.

The Qin Counterattack and Zhao’s Collapse

As autumn deepened, the Qin counteroffensive began in earnest. Zhang Han crossed the Zhang River to approach Handan from south while Wang Li moved south from Xindu to Queliang, creating a pincer movement. The Zhao forces, having never faced Qin’s main armies and inflated by Chen Yu’s growing reputation, disastrously underestimated their opponents.

The decisive battle unfolded in Handan’s outskirts under golden autumn skies. Zhao’s massive red formations stretched across the landscape, while Qin’s black-clad troops advanced with terrifying discipline. When the forces collided, Zhao’s “ocean” of soldiers disintegrated upon contact with Qin’s “mountain” of professional warriors. Within hours, the Zhao army routed completely, with Qin cavalry pursuing the fleeing remnants. Chen Yu barely escaped after his chariot overturned, while King Zhao Xie and Zhang Er fled to Julu.

Qin forces then besieged Julu from three sides, with only the turbulent Zhang River at their backs. As winter approached with its rains and early snows, the campaign stalled, giving both sides time to regroup. For Qin, the weather exacerbated supply problems from severed grain routes. For Zhao, it provided precious time to fortify defenses and gather scattered forces.

The Chu Intervention and Historical Legacy

The stalemate broke when Xiang Yu’s Chu forces, after months of preparation, famously crossed the Zhang River in spring, destroying their boats and cooking pots to demonstrate their commitment to victory or death. This “burning the boats” moment became legendary in Chinese military history.

The Zhao rebellion’s complex legacy reflects broader patterns in Qin’s collapse: the opportunistic nature of many resistance leaders, the fragility of anti-Qin alliances, and the critical role of military professionalism versus popular uprising. While initially successful in exploiting Qin’s strategic overextension, Zhao’s leaders ultimately fell victim to their own ambitions and Qin’s residual military might.

This episode also previewed the coming struggle between Xiang Yu and Liu Bang, as competing visions for post-Qin China began taking shape amid the chaos of collapsing central authority. The Zhao rebellion’s rise and fall thus represents a crucial transitional phase between unified Qin and the Chu-Han contention that would ultimately produce the Han Dynasty.