The Turbulent Backdrop of Late Ming China

The mid-17th century witnessed the Ming Dynasty’s dramatic collapse under the combined pressures of peasant revolts, Manchu invasions, and systemic corruption. Among the most formidable rebel leaders emerged Zhang Xianzhong, whose short-lived Daxi Kingdom would leave an indelible mark on Chinese history. This episode unfolded against a backdrop of severe famine, oppressive taxation, and the Ming government’s waning control over its territories—creating perfect conditions for large-scale rebellion.

Zhang’s rival Li Zicheng had already established a competing rebel regime in Xiangyang by early 1643, while Ming loyalist forces under commanders like Zuo Liangyu struggled to maintain control. The Yangtze River basin became a contested zone where these three power centers—Ming loyalists, Li’s Shun forces, and Zhang’s Daxi army—vied for supremacy amidst collapsing imperial authority.

The Swift Conquest of Wuchang and Daxi’s Founding

In a bold strategic move during the summer of 1643, Zhang Xianzhong capitalized on Ming general Zuo Liangyu’s retreat from Wuchang—itself prompted by Li Zicheng’s advances—to capture this crucial Yangtze River stronghold. The speed of Zhang’s victory allowed him to formally establish the Daxi (“Great Western”) Kingdom in Wuchang, complete with a bureaucratic apparatus and regional officials.

Contemporary accounts suggest this move carried deliberate political symbolism. By creating his own regime just months after Li Zicheng’s Xiangyang proclamation, Zhang asserted his independence from the more powerful rebel leader. The two revolutionary centers now operated in dangerous proximity—Li’s base in Hubei and Zhang’s in Hunan—setting the stage for potential conflict between China’s two most formidable peasant armies.

The Strategic Retreat to Hunan

Zhang’s abrupt abandonment of Wuchang merely two months later reveals much about rebel dynamics. Leaving only minimal forces with civilian administrators, the main Daxi army marched southward into Hunan province. Historians interpret this as a calculated move to avoid direct confrontation with Li’s superior numbers—a pragmatic decision to preserve autonomy rather than risk inter-rebel warfare.

The campaign demonstrated Zhang’s military brilliance. His forces rapidly took key cities along the Xiang River:

– Yuezhou fell on August 5, 1643 after Ming defenders fled
– Changsha surrendered on August 23 with minimal resistance
– Hengyang became the new southern base by autumn

By winter, Daxi control extended across most of Hunan, with only remote western counties remaining outside their grasp. The psychological impact spread even to Guangdong, where panic led to officials abandoning posts—one Ming administrator reportedly committed suicide upon receiving Daxi proclamations.

Popular Uprising in Jiangxi

The Hunan campaign’s success ignited parallel rebellions in neighboring Jiangxi. In a remarkable display of grassroots support, thousands of impoverished miners and farmers under Qiu Yanghuan’s leadership captured Yuanzhou in October 1643. Though Ming loyalists temporarily retook the city through brutal reprisals, Daxi forces ultimately prevailed with overwhelming popular support—locals reportedly lined roads with food and supplies to welcome Zhang’s army.

The Jiangxi campaign revealed both the promise and fragility of popular revolution:
– Yuanzhou citizens marked homes with “顺天救民” (Follow Heaven to Save the People) banners
– Ji’an fell on October 18 after Ming officials fled in disguise
– Xiajiang County witnessed civilians imprisoning their own magistrate awaiting Daxi forces

Yet Ming loyalists exploited revolutionary enthusiasm through deception—in Xiajiang, soldiers posing as Daxi troops massacred civilians who had welcomed them. Such episodes underscored the chaotic nature of this transitional period.

The Contradictions of Rebel Governance

Zhang’s administration displayed intriguing dualities. While establishing functional bureaucracies in conquered territories—even renaming counties like Wanze to Longcheng—his forces remained fundamentally mobile. This reflected both military necessity and perhaps ideological limitations; the Daxi regime never fully transitioned from rebellion to stable governance.

The movement’s social base proved equally complex. Urban elites often fled, while rural poor and marginalized groups (like Jiangxi’s shed-dwelling miners) became staunch supporters. This class dimension shaped the rebellion’s trajectory, as Daxi forces relied on local networks for intelligence and logistics but struggled to consolidate cross-class alliances.

The Swift Collapse and Historical Legacy

Zhang’s Hunan-Jiangxi successes proved ephemeral. By 1644, strategic shifts drew his forces westward to Sichuan, where his later reign became infamous in Qing historiography. The territories captured in 1643 quickly returned to Ming (and later Qing) control, yet the episode remains historically significant for several reasons:

1. Military Innovation: Zhang’s mobile warfare tactics influenced subsequent rebel movements
2. Administrative Experimentation: The Daxi bureaucracy offered alternative governance models
3. Social History: Reveals deep popular discontent with Ming rule
4. Historiographical Debate: Challenges traditional “bandit” narratives about peasant rebels

Modern scholarship increasingly views Zhang’s 1643 campaign not as mere plundering, but as a serious—if ultimately failed—attempt to establish legitimate revolutionary governance during China’s tumultuous late imperial transition. The brief Daxi interregnum in central China remains a fascinating case study in the possibilities and limitations of popular rebellion.