The Fractured Alliance: Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zicheng’s Rivalry

The turbulent mid-17th century witnessed two peasant rebel leaders carving their paths through a crumbling Ming dynasty. Zhang Xianzhong, the formidable leader of the Great Western Army (Daxi Jun), initially acknowledged Li Zicheng’s Shun regime as legitimate, even adopting Li’s Yongchang era name. This fragile political arrangement collapsed when Li’s forces suffered devastating defeats against the invading Qing armies.

The breaking point came when Li Zicheng dispatched generals Li Yutian and Ma Ke to expand into Sichuan territory – a direct challenge to Zhang’s sphere of influence. Zhang responded decisively, first sending his lieutenants then personally leading troops to northern Sichuan where he soundly defeated Ma Ke’s forces, driving them back to Shaanxi. To commemorate this victory, Zhang renamed Mianzhou as “Desheng Zhou” (Victory Prefecture), installing his own officials and garrison commanders. This northern Sichuan campaign marked the definitive rupture between China’s two most powerful peasant armies at a time when unity against the Qing threat was most needed.

Establishing the Great Western Kingdom

Following his occupation of Chengdu in 1644, Zhang Xianzhong formally established his regime, initially styling himself as King before proclaiming imperial status in 1645. He adopted “Dashun” as his era name (interestingly the same as Li Zicheng’s dynasty name), designated Chengdu as his western capital (Xijing), and transformed the former Shu princely residence into his palace.

The new government structure revealed both revolutionary ideals and pragmatic compromises:

Administrative Framework
Zhang created a centralized bureaucracy with Left and Right Grand Councilors overseeing six ministries. His appointments showed careful balancing – half were longtime loyalists like Wang Yinglong (Minister of Works, a former craftsman from Yan’an), while others were recruited locally including Yan Ximing, a Sichuan native as Right Grand Councilor. The civil service examination system was revived but reformed, replacing the stultifying eight-legged essays with policy discussions. Zhang personally authored “The Ten Thousand Word Policy” that intriguingly praised Xiang Yu, the failed Chu-Han contender, as history’s greatest ruler.

Military Organization
The military structure combined mobile field armies (48 battalions under four principal generals including the famous Sun Kewang and Li Dingguo) with local defense forces called “li troops” conscripted from the population (one soldier per three households). This dual system allowed for both offensive operations and territorial security.

Revolutionary Policies and Their Consequences

Zhang’s regime implemented radical measures that shook Sichuan’s social foundations:

Class Warfare Measures
The new government systematically eliminated Ming imperial clan members, viewing them as parasites. Wealthy families faced confiscatory “contributions” to military funds, often followed by execution regardless of compliance. While targeting the elite, these policies inevitably affected commoners as troops requisitioned grain and livestock indiscriminately.

Economic Experiments
Unlike Li Zicheng’s three-year tax moratorium in Hubei, Zhang’s regime largely abandoned formal taxation, sustaining itself through confiscations and foraging. This unsustainable approach, while revolutionary, devastated agricultural production and commerce despite efforts like minting high-quality “Dashun Tongbao” coins and special “Xiwang Shanggong” commemorative currency.

Surprising Openness to Western Knowledge
In a remarkable cultural exchange, Zhang welcomed Jesuit missionaries Lodovico Buglio and Gabriel de Magalhães, appointing them as “National Preceptors of Western Learning.” He eagerly absorbed their astronomical and mathematical knowledge, commissioning precision instruments like celestial globes. However, he firmly rejected Christian evangelism, astutely recognizing its potential as cultural imperialism while valuing European scientific advances.

The Descent Into Paranoia and Violence

Initially, Zhang’s regime enjoyed relative stability as many Ming officials pragmatically joined the new order. The turning point came in 1645 when Southern Ming loyalists orchestrated widespread uprisings. As scholar-gentry rebellions spread, Zhang’s response grew increasingly brutal:

The 1645 Chengdu Massacre
After suppressing revolts, Zhang ordered the extermination of Chengdu’s civilian population on November 22, 1645. Jesuit accounts describe horrifying scenes at South Gate where pleading civilians were slaughtered indiscriminately. The once-vibrant capital became a ghost town, with Zhang later attempting to repopulate it by forced relocation.

Systematic Elimination of Scholars
Viewing the educated class as rebellion instigators, Zhang lured thousands to Chengdu under pretext of special examinations only to massacre them at Daci Temple – approximately 5,000 killed in one horrific event.

The “Exterminate All Outside Cities” Policy
Zhang’s infamous order led to widespread countryside purges, compounding the devastation from ongoing warfare, famine, and disease. His chief advisor Wang Zhaoling reportedly encouraged these extreme measures before being executed by Zhang’s successors.

Historical Reassessment and Legacy

The conventional “Zhang Xianzhong Exterminated Sichuan” narrative requires critical reexamination:

Demographic Realities
While Sichuan’s population plummeted from over 3 million to perhaps 100,000 by 1660, this resulted from multiple catastrophes: Ming loyalist atrocities, Qing reprisals, bandit depredations, famines, and epidemics – not solely Zhang’s actions. Recent scholarship emphasizes that Sichuan’s worst suffering occurred after Zhang’s 1647 death during subsequent decades of turmoil.

The Paradox of Peasant Leadership
Zhang’s trajectory reflects the classic dilemma of rebel-turned-ruler. His initial revolutionary vigor gave way to paranoid autocracy, illustrating how peasant leaders often unconsciously replicated the structures they overthrew – from adopting imperial trappings to developing persecution complexes.

Numismatic Legacy
The “Dashun Tongbao” coins and rare “Xiwang Shanggong” medals remain prized by collectors, tangible remnants of this short-lived revolutionary experiment. The latter’s gold specimens rank among China’s most valuable numismatic treasures.

The Great Western Kingdom’s collapse in 1647 marked not just the end of Zhang’s ambitious rebellion, but also the failure of peasant revolution to transform itself into sustainable governance. Zhang’s tragic arc – from charismatic liberator to isolated tyrant – offers enduring lessons about power’s corrupting potential and the catastrophic costs of civil strife during dynastic transition.