The Fall of the Ming Dynasty and the Rise of Peasant Rebellion

The mid-17th century was a period of turmoil for China’s Ming Dynasty. Famine, corruption, and heavy taxation had pushed the peasantry to the brink, sparking widespread revolts. Among the most formidable rebel leaders was Zhang Xianzhong, whose Daxi (“Great Western”) regime emerged as a direct challenge to imperial authority. After capturing the strategic city of Changsha in 1643, Zhang shifted his political and military headquarters from Wuchang to Hunan, marking a pivotal moment in his rebellion.

Hunan, a fertile and economically vital region, became the heartland of Zhang’s short-lived regime. His administration sought legitimacy through proclamations, land reforms, and the establishment of a functioning bureaucracy—efforts that revealed both revolutionary ideals and pragmatic governance.

Proclamations and Policies: The Voice of Rebellion

One of Zhang Xianzhong’s first acts in Changsha was issuing a manifesto that outlined his policies. The edict declared:

“Our righteous army has arrived in Changsha, and within a day, two prefectures and three subprefectures have submitted. Deputy generals Yin Xianmin and He Yide have pledged loyalty and shall lead the advance into Jiangxi. They are hereby ennobled as hereditary earls, and their officers promoted. The people may resume their livelihoods without fear; taxes are suspended for three years. Let all civilians and soldiers submit to avoid destruction.”

This proclamation demonstrated Zhang’s dual strategy: rewarding defectors from the Ming ranks while offering relief to oppressed peasants. The suspension of taxes was particularly appealing to a population crushed by Ming exactions.

A second edict, issued after the capture of Changde—home of the hated Ming official Yang Sichang—was far more vengeful:

“The traitor Yang once mobilized armies against us. Though he died by our blade, his family’s lands and tombs remain. Since they resist, their lineage shall be exterminated, their graves desecrated, and their estates returned to the people. A bounty is placed on every Yang clansman captured.”

The order was ruthlessly enforced, reflecting both personal vendetta and a broader assault on Ming loyalists.

Land Reform and Social Revolution

While Zhang’s land policies were inconsistent, his regime undeniably disrupted the Ming aristocracy’s grip on Hunan. The Ming princes—such as the Chu, Ji, and Rong families—had amassed vast estates, often comprising hundreds of thousands of acres. The Daxi army’s campaigns destroyed these feudal holdings, redistributing land to peasants in some regions.

Contemporary accounts, like that of Ming official Fang Zhenru, noted the appeal of Zhang’s reforms:

“The rebels’ officials spread across the counties, proclaiming three years of tax exemption. The foolish masses, dazzled by these promises, grow resentful of our own demands for soldiers and supplies.”

Though systematic land reform was never fully implemented, the collapse of Ming aristocratic power allowed many peasants to reclaim fields previously monopolized by the elite.

Building a Rebel Government

With Changsha as his capital, Zhang established a functional administration. He appointed former Ming officials like Shi Kejing as governors, blending rebel leadership with bureaucratic experience. His regime also actively recruited scholars, offering positions through both examinations and direct recruitment.

In Hengyang, Zhang hosted imperial-style exams, attracting marginalized literati like the poet Wu Hou, who became a county magistrate. Wu’s eventual execution by Ming loyalists underscored the ideological divide: many educated men saw Zhang’s regime as a path to advancement denied by the corrupt Ming system.

The Collapse and Legacy of the Daxi Regime

Zhang’s control proved fleeting. By 1644, Ming loyalists and the rising Qing Dynasty began reclaiming Hunan. Yet, the Daxi regime’s brief rule left a lasting mark. Its proclamations articulated a peasant-centered vision of justice, while its attacks on Ming aristocracy weakened feudal structures long before the Qing’s consolidation.

Modern historians debate whether Zhang was a revolutionary or a warlord. His policies—like tax relief and land redistribution—were radical for their time, yet his brutality alienated potential allies. What remains undeniable is that his rebellion exposed the Ming Dynasty’s fragility, hastening its collapse and reshaping China’s transition to Qing rule.

Conclusion: A Rebellion Ahead of Its Time

Zhang Xianzhong’s Daxi regime was a fleeting but significant challenge to the old order. Its blend of radical reform and ruthless tactics foreshadowed later peasant movements in Chinese history. Though ultimately crushed, the rebellion revealed the explosive potential of agrarian discontent—a lesson that would echo through centuries of upheaval.