The Decline of the Aristocratic Feudal System
During the Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods, the feudal system was deeply intertwined with hereditary nobility and strict social hierarchies. The Zhou king, aside from directly governing the royal domain, granted land, people, and governing authority to relatives and vassals, known as zhuhou (诸侯, feudal lords). These lords, in turn, distributed land and power to their own subordinates, the qing dafu (卿大夫, high ministers), who further delegated authority to lower-ranking officials (shi, 士). This created a rigid hierarchy: the Son of Heaven (king), feudal lords, high ministers, and lower-ranking officials.
The privileges of these nobles—titles, land, wealth, and power—were typically inherited by the eldest son of the primary wife (dizi, 嫡长子), while younger sons received lesser status and resources. This hereditary system ensured that noble families maintained political and military control over generations, reinforcing their dominance through economic and political privileges.
The Reforms of the Warring States Period
By the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), states underwent sweeping reforms, particularly through legalist-inspired transformations (bianfa, 变法), which dismantled aristocratic privileges and abolished hereditary offices (shi qing shi lu, 世卿世禄). Instead, centralized bureaucratic systems emerged, with standardized military organization and administrative structures.
### The Shift from Hereditary Officials to Appointed Bureaucrats
During the Spring and Autumn period, high-ranking ministers maintained private retinues of household officials (jiachen, 家臣), who could be reassigned at will. These officials were bound by ritual obligations of loyalty. However, by the late Spring and Autumn period, salaried bureaucrats began to appear, receiving grain stipends rather than fiefdoms. For example:
– Confucius served as Minister of Justice in Lu, receiving a salary of 60,000 dou (斗) of grain.
– Later, in Wei, he was granted the same amount.
– Confucius also appointed Yuan Si as a steward, granting him 900 dou of grain.
By the Warring States period, this system evolved into a fully developed bureaucratic hierarchy under centralized authority.
The Implementation of Salary Systems
The stability of the bureaucratic system relied on six key institutional reforms:
1. Salaried Appointments – Officials were paid in grain, with varying units of measurement across states:
– Wei used pen (盆), with ranks like “1,000 pen” or “500 pen.”
– Qi and Wei used zhong (钟), such as Tian Pian, who received “1,000 zhong.”
– Qin and Yan measured salaries in shi (石) or dou (斗), with ranks from “50 shi” to “600 shi.”
– Chu used dan (担), with some officials receiving “10,000 dan.”
This system mirrored broader economic changes, including the rise of wage labor (yongke, 庸客) and mercenary soldiers. As Xunzi noted, this was a “market-based approach to governance” (yongtu xumai zhi dao, 佣徒鬻卖之道).
2. Monetary Rewards – States began awarding gold to meritorious officials instead of land grants. For example:
– Wei’s Prime Minister Gongsun Cuo was rewarded with 200,000 mu of land for a military victory.
– By the mid-Warring States period, gold became the standard reward, with amounts like “100 yi” or “1,000 jin” common.
3. Seal and Tallies System – Official documents required seals (xi, 玺), while military orders used tiger-shaped tallies (fu, 符). For example:
– In 238 BCE, the rebel Lao Ai forged the king’s seal to mobilize troops.
– The famous story of Lord Xinling stealing a tally to command troops illustrates the system’s security.
4. Annual Performance Reviews (Shangji, 上计) – Officials submitted yearly reports on grain storage, land taxes, population statistics, and public order. Those who failed were dismissed.
5. Inspections and Oversight – Kings and high ministers conducted tours (xingxian, 行县) to supervise local governance.
6. Merit-Based Appointments – Officials were selected through recommendations, petitions, military achievements, or promotions from lower ranks.
The Establishment of the Commandery-County System
The Warring States period saw the rise of the junxian (郡县) system, where commanderies (jun) and counties (xian) replaced feudal domains. This allowed rulers to directly appoint and dismiss officials, strengthening central control.
– Counties (Xian) – Originating in the early Spring and Autumn period, counties were royal territories rather than noble fiefs. By the Warring States era, they became standard administrative units.
– Commanderies (Jun) – First appearing in Jin, commanderies were initially frontier districts. Later, they subdivided into counties, forming a two-tier system.
### Military and Economic Functions
– Defensive Role – Commanderies like Wei’s Shangjun or Zhao’s Daijun guarded against nomadic threats.
– Taxation and Administration – Counties collected taxes, maintained order, and implemented laws.
The Creation of Legal and Social Controls
### Legal Codes
– Shang Yang’s Reforms – Introduced collective responsibility (lianzuo, 连坐), where families were punished for one member’s crimes.
– Qin Legal Texts – Excavated bamboo slips reveal detailed laws on agriculture, taxation, and punishments.
### Household Registration
– Census Systems – All males were registered at age 15 for military service and taxation.
– Restrictions on Movement – Peasants were tied to their land; unauthorized relocation was punished.
### Standardized Weights and Measures
States like Qin enforced uniform measurements to ensure fair taxation and trade.
The Evolution of Nobility and Titles
### Rank Systems
– Qin’s Twenty Ranks – From gongshi (公士, 1st rank) to chehou (彻侯, 20th rank), each conferred privileges like land, tax exemptions, and legal leniency.
– Chu’s Unique Titles – Used zhigui (执珪) as the highest honor, distinct from other states.
### Enfeoffment (Fengjun, 封君)
– Limited Autonomy – Unlike feudal lords, fengjun were salaried officials with restricted powers.
– Economic Privileges – They collected taxes but did not control armies or governance directly.
Rituals and Social Order
Despite political centralization, rituals (li, 礼) remained crucial for legitimizing power:
– Coronation Rites – New kings performed ceremonies in ancestral temples.
– Ancestor Worship – Shifted from human impersonators (shi, 尸) to statues.
– Funerary Practices – Tombs reflected status, with high-ranking officials buried with bronze ritual vessels.
Conclusion
The Warring States period marked a decisive shift from aristocratic rule to bureaucratic governance. By abolishing hereditary privileges, standardizing administration, and enforcing legal codes, states like Qin laid the foundation for imperial China. This transformation—rooted in military, economic, and legal reforms—reshaped Chinese political culture, emphasizing merit, centralization, and state control over tradition and nobility.