The Weight of Foreign Pressure on 19th-Century Korea

Unlike China’s sudden devastation during the Opium Wars, foreign pressure on Korea in the 19th century arrived slowly but relentlessly. The Hermit Kingdom, long insulated by its rigid Confucian hierarchy and isolationist policies, found itself increasingly vulnerable as Western powers and neighboring Japan encroached upon East Asia. This period of upheaval saw the birth of Donghak (Eastern Learning), a syncretic religious movement that would later ignite one of Korea’s largest peasant rebellions.

The Seeds of Repression: The Catholic Persecution and Intellectual Decline

In the early 1800s, Korea’s ruling Joseon Dynasty, deeply entrenched in Neo-Confucian orthodoxy, viewed foreign influences with suspicion. The so-called “Sinyu Persecution” (1801) marked a brutal crackdown on Catholicism after Korean converts were discovered corresponding with French missionaries, pleading for military aid. The suppression soon expanded beyond Catholics to include any “heterodox” thought, stifling intellectual dissent.

This repression had lasting consequences:
– The scholar-gentry class, traditionally a source of criticism against corruption, fell silent.
– Peasant uprisings, such as the Hong Gyeong-nae Rebellion (1811) in Pyeongan Province, became more frequent, evolving from spontaneous revolts to organized movements.
– Korea’s rigid social hierarchy, particularly the dominance of the yangban (aristocratic class), fueled widespread discontent.

The Birth of Donghak: A Response to Western Encroachment

By 1860, as China reeled from the Taiping Rebellion and India succumbed to British colonial rule, Korea faced its own existential crisis. That year, Choe Je-u, a destitute yangban scholar, founded Donghak, blending Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, and even Catholic elements into a distinctly Korean creed.

Key tenets of Donghak:
– “Man is Heaven” (人乃天) – Emphasizing human dignity and equality.
– Opposition to Korea’s rigid class system, including discrimination against illegitimate children.
– A rejection of Western cultural superiority, arguing that Eastern spirituality could rival Western materialism.

Choe’s message resonated with marginalized yangban and peasants alike, but the government saw Donghak as a threat. In 1864, Choe was executed for “sorcery and misleading the people,” a charge reflecting the state’s fear of mass mobilization.

From Religious Movement to Rebellion: The Donghak Peasant Uprising

Choe’s martyrdom only strengthened Donghak. Under Choe Si-hyeong, the second leader, the movement grew exponentially, particularly among women and the rural poor. However, internal divisions emerged:
– Moderates (led by Choe Si-hyeong) sought to keep Donghak apolitical.
– Radicals (led by Jeon Bong-jun) demanded direct action against corruption and foreign influence.

Jeon, whose father had been killed by corrupt officials, symbolized the fury of Korea’s oppressed. By the 1890s, economic hardship—worsened by Japanese merchants flooding markets with cheap British textiles—pushed Donghak toward open revolt.

The International Stage: Imperialism and the Great Game

Korea’s turmoil unfolded against a backdrop of imperial rivalries:
– Britain’s occupation of Geomun Island (1885) to counter Russian expansion.
– Qing China’s manipulation of Korean politics, exemplified by Yuan Shikai’s interference.
– Japan’s rising ambitions, which would soon culminate in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895).

The Donghak Peasant Rebellion (1894) became a flashpoint, prompting both Chinese and Japanese military intervention—a prelude to Korea’s eventual colonization by Japan in 1910.

Legacy of Donghak: From Rebellion to Modern Identity

Though crushed, Donghak left an indelible mark:
– Its egalitarian ideals influenced later Korean nationalist movements.
– The rebellion exposed the Joseon Dynasty’s fragility, hastening its collapse.
– Today, Donghak’s descendant, Cheondoism, remains a symbol of Korean cultural resistance.

In an era of foreign domination, Donghak was more than a rebellion—it was Korea’s first awakening to modernity, a struggle to define its identity against the tides of imperialism.