A Princely Birth in the Mansion of Prince Chun
On June 28, 1871 (the 28th day of the 6th lunar month in the 10th year of Tongzhi’s reign), a male heir was born in the mansion of Prince Chun that would alter the course of Chinese history. This child, named Zaitian, entered the world as the second son of Yixuan, the Seventh Prince and younger brother to Emperor Xianfeng. His mother, Lady Yehenara Wanzhen, held the significant distinction of being the younger sister of Empress Dowager Cixi, forging a blood connection that would prove fateful for the young prince.
The birth followed strict imperial protocols – as customary for royal births, Prince Chun immediately reported the auspicious event to the palace. Empress Dowager Cixi responded with congratulations, bestowing upon the infant both the name Zaitian and an ornate gold lock embedded with precious jewels. For the first three years of his life, Zaitian enjoyed the carefree existence of an imperial prince within the protective walls of the Chun residence, unaware of the extraordinary destiny awaiting him.
Prince Chun’s household reflected the cautious political philosophy of its master. The main hall bore the name “Hall of Thoughtful Humility,” while the study displayed a “qiyi” vessel inscribed with the warning: “Pride invites loss, humility brings benefit.” The children’s quarters featured hanging scrolls with sobering admonitions about the dangers of excessive wealth and ambition – clear indications of Yixuan’s determination to maintain a low profile amidst the treacherous waters of Qing court politics.
The Unexpected Path to the Dragon Throne
The year 1875 marked a dramatic turning point in Zaitian’s young life. On January 12 (the 5th day of the 12th lunar month of Tongzhi 13), the sudden death of the 19-year-old Emperor Tongzhi without an heir created a dangerous succession crisis. The circumstances surrounding Tongzhi’s demise remain controversial among historians, with competing theories suggesting either smallpox or syphilis as the cause of death.
Contemporary medical records and the diary of imperial tutor Weng Tonghe provide conflicting evidence. The “Imperial Smallpox Treatment Records” officially documented a smallpox diagnosis, but symptoms described in later stages – including foul-smelling abscesses and necrotic facial tissue – suggest possible complications from venereal disease. The emperor’s personal physician, Li Deli, reportedly confided to family members that he had been forced to treat syphilis as smallpox under Cixi’s orders, a secret so dangerous that Li instructed descendants to never serve as imperial physicians again.
Amidst this controversy, Empress Dowager Cixi made a bold political maneuver. Rather than selecting an heir from the next generation (which would have made her a grandmotherly figure with diminished authority), she orchestrated the four-year-old Zaitian’s adoption as the son of the deceased Emperor Xianfeng, thereby maintaining her position as regent. The official edict proclaimed:
“With the emperor having ascended to heaven without an heir, we reluctantly decree that Zaitian, son of Prince Chun, shall be adopted as heir to Emperor Xianfeng and succeed to the throne as the new emperor. When the new emperor fathers a son, that child shall become heir to the deceased emperor.”
This unprecedented arrangement sparked immediate controversy. Within weeks, Grand Secretary Guang’an petitioned for an ironclad guarantee that any future son of Guangxu would indeed inherit Tongzhi’s lineage – a thinly veiled challenge to Cixi’s authority that earned him an imperial rebuke. The tragic suicide of Tongzhi’s empress just months later, allegedly by starvation, further fueled suspicions about palace intrigues.
The Mechanics of Imperial Regency
Zaitian’s formal ascension on February 25, 1875 (the 20th day of the 1st lunar month of Guangxu 1) began what historians would call the “Second Regency” of Empress Dowager Cixi. The day after the young emperor’s arrival in the Forbidden City, the court announced a renewed period of “behind-the-curtain” governance:
“The new emperor remains in his minority, and all affairs of state must be decided by the empress dowagers. This curtain governance represents a temporary measure during difficult times… Once the emperor completes his studies, power shall be returned.”
Cixi moved swiftly to consolidate power. Her first target was the influential Grand Council led by Prince Gong (Yixin), who had dominated court politics since the Tongzhi Restoration. In a carefully staged political purge in 1884, Cixi dismissed Prince Gong and his allies on charges of corruption and incompetence, replacing them with loyalists including the malleable Prince Li (Yixuan) and Prince Chun (Yixuan).
The sudden death of Empress Dowager Ci’an in 1881 removed another potential check on Cixi’s authority. While wild rumors circulated about poisoning, medical evidence from court physician records suggests Ci’an likely succumbed to a cerebral hemorrhage – a condition documented in earlier health crises. Nevertheless, Ci’an’s modest funeral arrangements compared to the lavish ceremonies Cixi would later arrange for her own sister-in-law reinforced perceptions of the surviving dowager’s vindictiveness.
The Illusion of Independence: Marriage and “Personal Rule”
As Guangxu approached adulthood, Cixi orchestrated another political theater. In 1886, she publicly announced plans to retire from governance, only to have her handpicked officials “plead” for her continued guidance. The resulting “Tutelage Government” compromise, formalized in the 1887 “Guidelines for Instruction,” created a bizarre dual sovereignty:
1. All imperial audiences would include both rulers, separated by a screen
2. Memorials would continue addressing both dowager and emperor
3. Personnel decisions required Cixi’s approval
4. Examination questions needed her review
5. Vermilion endorsements on documents required her inspection
The 1889 marriage of 18-year-old Guangxu to Cixi’s niece, Empress Xiaodingjing, completed the dowager’s control network. The selection ceremony at the Hall of Harmony notably included the future Empress Longyu (then called Jingfen) alongside the sisters who would become Consorts Zhen and Jin – setting the stage for both romantic and political rivalries that would later erupt during the Hundred Days’ Reform.
When Guangxu formally assumed personal rule on March 4, 1889 (the 3rd day of the 2nd lunar month of Guangxu 15), the elaborate governance mechanisms ensured real power remained firmly in Cixi’s hands. The stage was set for the coming decades of reform and reaction that would culminate in the Boxer Rebellion and ultimately, the fall of the Qing dynasty.
Legacy of a Reluctant Emperor
Guangxu’s unusual path to power – from carefree prince to puppet monarch – reflected the deep institutional crises plaguing late Qing China. The succession controversies surrounding his accession exposed the fragility of imperial institutions when confronted with an aging regent’s determination to retain control. His eventual attempt to break free during the 1898 reforms would lead to house arrest and renewed direct rule by Cixi, demonstrating the formidable obstacles to change within the Qing system.
Modern historians continue debating whether Guangxu might have led China toward successful modernization given genuine authority. His tragic life – bookended by Cixi’s domination and ending in suspected poisoning just before her own death – remains one of the most poignant “what if” scenarios in Chinese history. The documents preserved from his reign, particularly those surrounding his contested accession, offer invaluable insights into the complex power dynamics that ultimately contributed to China’s difficult transition into the modern world.