The Origins of Chinese Metal Coinage

The transition from barter to metal currency marked a pivotal moment in China’s economic development. During the mid-to-late Spring and Autumn period (approximately 6th-5th century BCE), China witnessed its earliest metal coins emerge as cast bronze objects. This innovation reached full maturity during the subsequent Warring States period (475-221 BCE), when four distinct monetary systems developed across competing states.

Archaeological evidence reveals these systems corresponded to regional powers: the knife-money system of eastern states Qi and Yan, the spade-money system of central states like Zhou and the Three Jin (Han, Zhao, Wei), the round-hole coins of western Qin, and the ant-nose coins of southern Chu. This geographical distribution reflects both economic specialization and political fragmentation during China’s axial age.

The Knife Money System of Eastern States

### Qi’s Grand Knife Coins

The most impressive specimens come from Qi territory in modern Shandong province. These “Qi knives” or “grand knives” represent the largest and most exquisitely cast knife coins. Their design likely evolved from actual bronze knives used in daily life, featuring curved backs, arched blades, inward-sloping tips, and a ring at the handle end.

The 1972 Haiyang discovery remains extraordinary – a hoard containing 1,587 intact knife coins stored in bundles of 20, possibly originally housed in wooden boxes. Among these, “Qi Fa Hua” coins predominated (1,469 specimens), followed by rarer types like “Qi Zhi Fa Hua” and commemorative “Qi Jian Bang Fa Hua” issues possibly marking the Tian clan’s usurpation of Qi.

Metrological analysis shows significant variation: the largest “Ji Mo Zhi Fa Hua” specimens measured 18.5cm long and weighed 59-61g, while standard “Qi Fa Hua” averaged 17.8-18.7cm and 45-47g. Casting sites like the Linzi workshop yielded crucial evidence – eight fragmentary clay molds for “Qi Fa Hua” production, revealing sophisticated minting technology.

### Yan’s Knife Currency Evolution

To the north, Yan state produced distinctive knife coins. The earliest “pointed-tip knives” (jian shou dao) found across Hebei, Liaoning and Shandong show primitive characteristics without standardized inscriptions. The 1966 Yixian discovery of a five-cavity pointed-tip knife mold confirms local production.

These evolved into the famous “ming knives” (often misread as “ming” but likely representing “Yan”), with two subtypes: early curved-back versions and later straight-back varieties. The 1999 Lingyuan hoard contained 80+ curved-back specimens (14-14.7cm, 14-18.5g), while massive Yan discoveries like the 11,933 coins at Shuangfengsi demonstrate the scale of circulation.

### Specialized Variants and Borderland Adaptations

Several specialized forms emerged:
– Needle-tip knives from Yan frontier regions, possibly imitated by non-Chinese tribes
– Cut-tip knives from Shandong with uncertain origins
– Straight knives from Zhao state, featuring inscriptions like “Gan Dan” (Handan)
– Zhongshan state’s “Cheng Bo” knives, with 1,501 specimens found at Lingshou capital

The Spade Money of Central States

### Hollow-Handle Spades (Kong Shou Bu)

The earliest spade coins appeared in mid-Spring and Autumn period (Quwo discovery, c. 7th century BCE). These primitive forms maintained the hollow socket of their agricultural tool prototypes. Major finds include:
– 753 specimens at Yichuan (604 flat-shouldered, 149 sloped-shouldered)
– 401 “An Zang” small spades at Xin’an
– 354 specimens at Luoyang’s Eastern Zhou capital

Regional variations emerged: Jin state favored high-shouldered pointed-foot types, while Zhou and Han territories produced flat-shouldered and sloped-shouldered versions respectively.

### Flat-Head Spades (Ping Shou Bu)

During the Warring States period, simplified flat-head spades dominated. The Yanggao hoard contained 13,000 specimens (90% square-footed), while Zhengzhou’s find held 2,065 pieces mainly from Zhao. Production evidence includes:
– Stone molds at Baotou
– Iron mold at Liangcheng (10x9cm, featuring “An Yang” and “Ge Yi” inscriptions)

### Specialized Spade Types

Round-foot spades appeared in Zhao and Zhongshan territories, with inscriptions like “Lin” and “Li Shi.” The controversial three-hole spades (with one hole in head and two in feet) remain debated – proposed origins include Qin, Zhao, or Zhongshan.

Round Coins and Regional Variations

### Qin’s Round Coins (Huan Qian)

Western Qin state pioneered round coins in two phases:
– Early round-hole types (3.6-3.7cm diameter, ~14g) inscribed “yi liang”
– Later square-hole versions (3.5cm, ~7g) marked “liang zi” or “ban liang”

Key finds include:
– 7 “ban liang” at Haojiaping tomb (with 309 BCE wooden slip)
– 976 “ban liang” at Chang’an

### Other States’ Round Coins

– Qi: Square-hole coins marked “Yi Hua” (1.5g), “Yi Si Hua” (6g), “Yi Liu Hua” (9g)
– Yan: Lightweight (1.4-1.5g) “Yi Dao” coins
– Three Jin: Round-hole coins inscribed with place names like “Yuan”

Chu’s Unique Monetary System

### Ant-Nose Coins (Yi Bi Qian)

Southern Chu developed distinctive oval bronze “shell” coins:
– Shandong find: 15,978 pieces (1.2-1.8cm, 0.6-4.2g)
– Hubei discovery: 4,745 specimens (avg. 4.37g)
– Anhui: 11,231 “Yin” coins (avg. 2.62g)

Copper molds from Anhui (27×10.7cm) held 64 cavities per plate, demonstrating mass production.

### Gold Plates (Jin Ban)

Chu also produced gold currency:
– Shouxian find: 19 plates (260-265g) with “Lu Jin” or “Ying Chen” seals
– Fugou hoard: 392 gold pieces (195 plates, 197 cakes) with varied inscriptions

Cultural and Economic Impacts

The proliferation of metal currency transformed Warring States society:
– Standardized value facilitated inter-state trade
– Minting technology reflected advances in metallurgy
– Inscriptions documented place names and political changes
– Regional variations expressed cultural identities
– Hoard distributions reveal trade networks

Legacy and Modern Relevance

These ancient currencies established patterns influencing later Chinese monetary systems:
– Qin’s round coins evolved into the classic “cash” system
– Regional specialization foreshadowed later economic zones
– Technical innovations in casting persisted for millennia
– Archaeological finds continue reshaping our understanding of early Chinese commerce

The Warring States monetary systems represent both a remarkable technological achievement and a fascinating window into China’s first great age of economic innovation. Their study illuminates the complex interplay between political fragmentation and economic integration that characterized this formative period in Chinese civilization.