The Seeds of Nationalism in Post-Napoleonic Europe

The 1830s and 1840s witnessed the dramatic emergence of nationalist movements across Europe, though their goals varied significantly from later aggressive forms of ethnic nationalism. Following the Congress of Vienna (1815), suppressed peoples under multi-ethnic empires began articulating distinct aspirations – from full independence to cultural recognition within existing frameworks.

Poland became the most persistent case, having been partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria in the late 18th century. Unlike later nationalist movements, most groups initially sought autonomy rather than complete separation. Czech and Hungarian nationalists worked within the Habsburg system, while Finland’s Johan Vilhelm Snellman promoted Finnish language education without challenging Russian rule.

Two distinct nationalist models emerged:
– Cultural revival movements seeking official recognition
– Unification campaigns for divided peoples (Germans, Italians)

These movements operated under the repressive shadow of Metternich’s system, which viewed any nationalist activity as revolutionary threat.

Mazzini and the Birth of Revolutionary Nationalism

Giuseppe Mazzini transformed nationalist ideology through his “Young Italy” movement, founded in 1831 during his Marseille exile. Unlike earlier secret societies like the Carbonari, Mazzini’s organization featured:
– A clear democratic republican platform
– Nationwide membership networks
– Regular publications and membership dues

Mazzini’s charismatic leadership (contemporaries described him as “the most beautiful man”) inspired thousands, though his 1833 plot against Piedmont-Sardinia failed spectacularly, resulting in executions and his own death sentence.

The movement spawned imitators across Europe:
– Young Germany (literary movement)
– Young Poland (played key role in 1830 uprising)
– Young Ireland (though non-violent, seeking repeal of 1800 Union Act)

Mazzini’s London exile became a hub for coordinating these movements, demonstrating nationalism’s transnational connections.

The Habsburg Dilemma: Reform vs Repression

Metternich’s Austria remained the primary obstacle to nationalist aspirations, governing:
– Northern Italy (Lombardy-Venetia)
– Bohemia
– Hungary
– Parts of Germany

Emperor Francis I famously compared his empire to “a crumbling house” where any reform might cause collapse. The system showed cracks by the 1840s:

In Hungary:
– 1840 reforms granted Jewish rights and interfaith marriage
– Lajos Kossuth’s nationalist faction gained strength
– Economic modernization began with first railways

In Italy:
– Pope Pius IX’s 1846 election sparked reform hopes
– Tuscany and Piedmont introduced constitutional elements
– Austrian dominance faced growing resentment

The Swiss Model and Liberal Advance

Switzerland’s 1847 civil war between Protestant liberals and Catholic conservatives proved pivotal:
– Sonderbund separatist league defeated in 11-day war
– First use of battlefield ambulances
– 1848 liberal constitution became model for others

This conflict demonstrated how nationalist and liberal ideals could triumph through limited violence – an encouraging sign for reformers elsewhere.

Germany’s Constitutional Struggles

The German Confederation saw growing tensions:
– 1837 Hanover constitutional crisis (involving Grimm brothers)
– Prussian United Diet convened (then dissolved) in 1847
– Bavaria’s Ludwig I discredited by Lola Montez scandal

Liberal gains remained fragile, but the groundwork was laid for 1848’s revolutionary surge.

Britain’s Reform Path

British institutions became the liberal ideal, avoiding revolution through gradual reform:
– 1832 Reform Act expanded suffrage
– Municipal Corporations Act (1835) modernized local government
– Peel’s economic reforms (1844 Bank Act, income tax)

Chartism’s mass mobilization (3 million signatures in 1842 petition) demonstrated working-class political awakening, though the movement ultimately failed to achieve democratic reforms.

France’s Stalled Liberalism

The July Monarchy (1830-48) under Guizot exemplified liberal contradictions:
– Educational advances (primary school expansion)
– Political stagnation (narrow electoral franchise)
– Corruption scandals undermining legitimacy

Guizot’s infamous advice to critics – “Enrich yourselves!” – captured the regime’s bourgeois character and growing disconnect from popular aspirations.

The Gathering Storm

By 1847, multiple crises converged:
– Economic distress across Europe
– Failed harvests and financial crises
– Intellectual ferment challenging old orders

As Viktor von Andrian-Werburg warned, the situation resembled “France in 1788.” The stage was set for the revolutionary explosions of 1848, when these nationalist and liberal currents would erupt into full-scale upheaval.

This turbulent period redefined European politics, creating the ideological frameworks and organizational models that would shape nation-building throughout the nineteenth century. The movements of the 1830s-40s, for all their diversity, established the fundamental tension between dynastic empires and popular sovereignty that would ultimately transform the continent.