The Mediterranean World in Flux

The Mediterranean basin during this period was a dynamic arena where civilizations clashed and coalesced. As the Roman poet Ennius noted in his Annals, written between 180–170 BCE, powerful currents divided Europe from Libya (North Africa), symbolizing the emerging conflict between Rome and Carthage. This era witnessed the dramatic transformation of Rome from a regional power to a Mediterranean superpower, a journey marked by three devastating Punic Wars against Carthage and eventual domination over the Greek world.

Foundations of Roman Power

Rome’s origins remain shrouded in myth and archaeological discovery. Traditional accounts trace Rome’s founding to 753 BCE by Romulus, though modern archaeology reveals a more complex picture. By the 6th century BCE, Rome had developed into a significant urban center with defensive walls enclosing 425 hectares – twice the size of contemporary Etruscan cities. The overthrow of the last Roman king in 507 BCE established the Republic, governed by two consuls, the Senate, and popular assemblies.

Key to Rome’s early success was its flexible citizenship policies. Unlike Greek city-states, Rome granted citizenship to freed slaves and incorporated conquered peoples through its system of allies and colonies. The story of Romulus establishing an asylum for refugees became symbolic of Rome’s inclusive approach, though elite Romans would later debate whether this created a “rabble of Romulus” or a source of strength.

The Rivalry with Carthage

Carthage, founded by Phoenicians from Tyre in the late 9th century BCE, grew into a maritime empire controlling trade routes from North Africa to Spain. Early treaties with Rome (507 and 348 BCE) delineated spheres of influence, but as both powers expanded, conflict became inevitable. The First Punic War (264–241 BCE) erupted over Sicily, with Rome developing naval capabilities to challenge Carthage’s sea power. The war ended with Rome’s victory and acquisition of Sicily as its first province.

The Second Punic War (218–202 BCE) saw Hannibal’s legendary crossing of the Alps with war elephants. Despite devastating Roman defeats at Cannae and elsewhere, Rome’s alliance system held firm in central Italy. The war concluded with Scipio Africanus’ victory at Zama in North Africa, forcing Carthage to surrender its Spanish territories and become a Roman client state.

Cultural Transformations and Identity

Rome’s expansion brought profound cultural changes. Latin colonies like Cosa (founded 273 BCE) spread Roman language and institutions throughout Italy. Local languages like Etruscan and Oscan persisted but gradually declined in official use. Roman religion incorporated elements from conquered peoples while maintaining its distinct identity – the Etruscan practice of haruspicy (divination) became institutionalized despite Etruscan political subjugation.

Carthage maintained its Phoenician identity while adopting Greek cultural elements. The controversial tophet sanctuary, where Carthaginians practiced child sacrifice (according to Roman accounts), became a symbol of their “otherness” in Roman propaganda. When Rome finally destroyed Carthage in 146 BCE, they ritually “devoted” the city to the underworld gods, ensuring its complete erasure.

The Greek World and Roman Expansion

Rome’s involvement in Greek affairs began as a protector of Greek cities against Macedonian aggression. By 200 BCE, Rome had defeated Philip V of Macedon, and over the next fifty years gradually dismantled the Hellenistic kingdoms. The destruction of Corinth in 146 BCE (the same year as Carthage’s fall) marked the end of Greek independence and the beginning of direct Roman rule.

Greek historian Polybius, writing in Rome, analyzed the republic’s success as stemming from its balanced constitution mixing monarchic (consuls), aristocratic (Senate), and democratic (assemblies) elements. Roman elites like Scipio Africanus embraced Greek culture while maintaining Roman values, creating a distinctive Greco-Roman synthesis.

Legacy of the Conflict

The Roman-Carthaginian struggle reshaped Mediterranean geography conceptually as well as politically. The term “Africa” (from a local name) replaced “Libya” for the continent, while Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul expanded European geographical knowledge. The historian Artemidorus’ detailed maps of Iberia reflected Rome’s growing geographical awareness.

The wars also transformed Rome’s self-conception. From Aeneas’ mythical journey to the historical defeat of Carthage, Romans saw their rise as divinely ordained. The destruction of both Carthage and Corinth in 146 BCE marked Rome’s emergence as the Mediterranean’s unchallenged superpower, setting the stage for further expansion and the eventual transition from Republic to Empire.

This period established patterns that would define Western history for centuries: the spread of Latin language and Roman law, the fusion of Greek and Roman culture, and the model of republican government that would inspire later political thinkers from Machiavelli to America’s Founding Fathers. The Roman-Carthaginian conflict, particularly through the lens of Roman historians, became the archetypal “clash of civilizations” in Western historical memory.