The Fragmented Landscape of Late Han China

As the Han Dynasty crumbled in the late 2nd century CE, warlords carved up the empire. In the southeast, the strategic Yang Province became a battleground between rival factions. Liu Yao, a scion of the imperial Liu clan from Donglai’s elite class, emerged as a key player when appointed Inspector of Yang Province by the embattled Han court in 194 CE. His family credentials were impeccable—uncle Liu Chong had served as Grand Commandant, father Liu Yu as Administrator of Shanyang, and elder brother Liu Dai as Governor of Yan Province.

Yet titles meant little without military power. When Inspector Chen Wen died, both Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu vied for control of Yang Province. The court’s appointment of Liu Yao—then taking refuge in Huaipu (modern Lianshui, Jiangsu)—was a desperate move. Unable to establish his seat in Shouchun (occupied by Yuan Shu after being ousted by Cao Cao), Liu Yao settled in Qu’e near Danyang Commandery, welcomed by Sun Ce’s relatives Wu Jing and Sun Ben.

The Sun Family’s Precarious Balancing Act

This moment revealed the Sun family’s evolving strategy. Still nominally subordinate to Yuan Shu, they nonetheless hosted Liu Yao—Yuan Shu’s rival. Why did Yuan Shu tolerate this? Two reasons:

1. The Suns’ military strength demanded caution
2. As an ally of Li Jue and Guo Si (who controlled the puppet emperor), Yuan Shu couldn’t openly defy court appointments

The Suns used this ambiguity to rebuild ties with aristocratic clans. Scholar Zhang Hong famously advised Sun Ce to “claim Jiangdong under Liu Yao’s authority”—a plan that could legitimize Sun expansion while improving their standing among elites.

The Turning Point: The Lujiang Campaign

Everything changed when Sun Ce committed to Yuan Shu’s disastrous Lujiang campaign against Administrator Lu Kang in 194 CE. This costly siege:
– Drained troops from Danyang (leaving Wu Jing vulnerable)
– Alienated Liu Yao, who drove Wu Jing and Sun Ben across the Yangtze
– Earned Sun Ce infamy for attacking Lu Kang, a respected 70-year-old scholar-official

For nearly two years, Sun Ce remained trapped in this strategic blunder. Meanwhile:
– Yuan Shu installed his own Yang Province inspector
– The Sun family lost their Danyang recruitment base
– Jiangdong elites increasingly viewed them as Yuan Shu’s violent proxies

Zhou Yu’s Fateful Decision

The stalemate broke in 195 CE when 21-year-old Zhou Yu—scion of the prestigious Zhou clan—made an earthshaking choice. As nephew of Liu Yao’s Danyang Administrator Zhou Shang, he:
– Defected with troops, ships, and supplies
– Enabled Sun Ce’s Yangtze crossing at Niuzhu (modern Caishiji)
– Shattered the year-long river defense

This betrayal horrified Jiangdong’s elite:
– The Zhous were庐江 gentry; Lu Kang had been their protector
– Zhou Yu sacrificed centuries of family prestige for friendship

The Bloody Conquest of Jiangdong

With Zhou’s support, Sun Ce:
1. Crushed Liu Yao’s forces at Qu’e (194 CE)
2. Defeated Xue Li and Ze Rong (refugees from Xu Province)
3. Conquered Kuaiji by defeating Wang Lang (196 CE)

Contemporary accounts paint contradictory portraits:
– Records of Three Kingdoms: Charismatic leader inspiring devotion
– Jiangbiao Zhuan: Feared warlord whose arrival sent officials fleeing

The truth lay between—initial terror gave way to pragmatic acceptance after Sun demonstrated restraint.

The Cost of Violence

Sun Ce’s methods grew increasingly brutal:
– Executed Yan Yu during peace negotiations
– Massacred the Wang clan despite his mother’s pleas
– Drove scholar-officials like Xu Jing to flee as far as Jiaozhi (Vietnam)

This created a paradox—only through terror could Sun maintain control, yet each atrocity deepened elite resentment. As he told teenage brother Sun Quan: “These men will be your subjects.” The implication was clear—Sun Ce would bear the sins of conquest, leaving reconciliation to his successor.

The Unlikely Beneficiary: Cao Cao

In a twist of fate:
– Defeated Wang Lang later became a Cao Wei minister
– His grandson married Sima Zhao
– His great-grandson was Jin founder Sima Yan

Meanwhile, Sun Ce’s 196 CE overtures to Cao Cao reflected a seismic shift—the Han emperor had just arrived in Cao’s new capital at Xuchang. The age of warlords was giving way to the Three Kingdoms order.

Legacy of the Jiangdong Campaigns

Sun Ce’s conquests (194-200 CE) established the territorial core of Eastern Wu, yet the costs were profound:
– Alienated local elites, forcing later Wu kings to rely on northern refugees
– Created enduring tensions between military and scholarly factions
– Demonstrated how personal loyalty (Zhou Yu’s) could override class interests

The “Three Generations” of Wu rule praised by Zhuge Liang actually began with this violent, improvised conquest—a far cry from the stable dynasty later remembered. Sun Ce’s tragic brilliance lay in recognizing his role as the necessary villain, clearing a path his brother could walk more gently.