From Feudal Fragmentation to Centralized Rule

The Qin and Han dynasties (221 BCE–220 CE) marked a revolutionary shift in Chinese administrative history through the establishment of the commandery-county (junxian) system. Unlike the Eastern Zhou period (770–256 BCE), where feudalism coexisted with nascent regional commanderies, the First Emperor of Qin abolished hereditary fiefdoms after unification in 221 BCE, dividing the empire into 36 commanderies (jun). This system transformed former feudal capitals and smaller settlements into administrative hubs, creating a hierarchical urban network centered on the capital, Xianyang.

The Han dynasty inherited this framework but introduced a hybrid model: commanderies governed by the central bureaucracy existed alongside semi-autonomous kingdoms (wangguo). Early Han rulers, seeking stability, initially appointed seven non-imperial kings before replacing them with imperial relatives. By Emperor Wu’s reign (141–87 BCE), central authority prevailed—kingdoms were reduced to controlling single commanderies or mere handfuls of cities. By the Western Han’s end, records listed 83 commanderies, 20 kingdoms, and over 1,500 counties, reflecting the system’s dominance.

The Mechanics of Territorial Governance

Under the Han, commanderies and kingdoms oversaw counties (xian), marquisates (houguo), and frontier districts (dao). Marquisates, equal in status to counties, rewarded meritorious officials or were carved from kingdoms via Emperor Wu’s “Decree of Graceful Enfeoffment.” Dao districts administered non-Han ethnic groups in the southwest and northwest, while yi enclaves included imperial family estates, imperial tomb towns, and ritual centers.

The Eastern Han (25–220 CE) saw two key changes: reduced administrative units due to population decline and the elevation of provinces (zhou) as fixed jurisdictions with enhanced power. By the late Eastern Han, a three-tiered system (zhou-jun-xian) emerged, with provincial governors (zhou mu) becoming warlords during the dynasty’s collapse.

Frontier zones employed unique structures like “dependent states” (shuguo), where non-Han groups retained autonomy under Han-appointed commanders. Examples included the Protectorate of the Western Regions and military posts like the “Protector of the Wuhuan.”

Cities as Engines of Empire

Over 620 Qin-Han urban sites have been identified, though only 300 can be definitively classified as commandery capitals, county seats, or tomb towns. These cities functioned as political, economic, and military nerve centers. Archaeologically, they cluster in two core regions:

1. The Yellow River Basin: The heartland of Han civilization, hosting densely packed administrative cities.
2. The Yangtze River Basin: A secondary zone with fewer but strategically vital settlements.

Frontier areas, like the Great Wall corridor, featured militarized towns such as those in the Ordos Plateau, while the remote southwest saw hybrid settlements like the Shu Commanderies.

Cultural and Social Transformations

The junxian system reshaped Chinese society in three key ways:

1. Standardization: Uniform administrative practices replaced regional feudal customs, fostering cultural integration.
2. Mobility: Officials rotated posts, creating a literate bureaucracy detached from local kinship ties.
3. Urbanization: County seats became hubs for education (county schools), commerce (official markets), and state rituals (e.g., Confucian temples).

Tomb towns like Changling (for Emperor Gao) exemplified state-sponsored urbanization, relocating wealthy families to guard imperial mausoleums and stimulate local economies.

Legacy and Modern Parallels

The Qin-Han system laid China’s enduring administrative template. Today’s provincial-county structure echoes its logic, balancing central control with regional adaptability. The Han’s handling of ethnic frontiers—through hybrid shuguo districts—finds parallels in modern autonomous regions like Tibet. Meanwhile, the tension between centralized rule and local empowerment, visible in Han struggles with kingdoms, remains a recurring theme in Chinese governance.

As archaeologists uncover more sites—such as Shenmu’s Dabao Fortress, likely a shuguo capital—the Qin-Han urban legacy continues to illuminate China’s imperial foundations. The era’s innovations in bureaucracy and territorial management not only stabilized a vast empire but also shaped East Asia’s political imagination for millennia.