A Dynasty in Crisis: The Fall of Beijing and Southern Resistance

The year 1644 marked a cataclysmic turning point in Chinese history when rebel leader Li Zicheng captured Beijing, prompting the Chongzhen Emperor’s suicide and the collapse of the Ming Dynasty. As Manchu forces swept southward, Ming loyalists scrambled to establish successor regimes. By June 1645, the Hongguang Emperor’s short-lived Nanjing court had fallen, leaving a power vacuum in southern China. Against this backdrop of desperation, two rival Ming claimants emerged: the Prince of Tang, Zhu Yujian (later the Longwu Emperor), and the Prince of Lu, Zhu Yihai. Their competing claims would ignite a bitter struggle for legitimacy during one of China’s most turbulent periods.

The Unlikely Monarch: Zhu Yujian’s Path to Power

Zhu Yujian’s ascent was extraordinary given his marginal position in the imperial lineage. As an eighth-generation descendant of Zhu Jing, the 22nd son of Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang, his claim appeared tenuous. Yet three critical factors propelled him to leadership:

1. Geographical Necessity: With most senior Ming princes either captured or distant in Guangxi, southeastern gentry needed a viable candidate nearby after Prince Lu’s surrender.
2. Symbolic Resonance: The Tang princely seat in Nanyang—birthplace of Eastern Han founder Emperor Guangwu—allowed supporters like Huang Daozhou to frame Zhu’s rise as a historical echo of dynastic restoration.
3. Personal Merit: Unlike pampered aristocrats, Zhu endured decades of imprisonment (including 16 years confined with his father by his grandfather), emerging as a battle-tested leader. His 1645 autobiographical account reveals a ruler forged through adversity—from avenging his father’s murder to surviving house arrest under Chongzhen.

Huang Daozhou’s memorials praised these trials as preparation for leadership, comparing Zhu to the Jin prince Chong’er and Emperor Xuan of Han, both exiled rulers who later restored their dynasties.

The Fujian Power Base: Building the Longwu Regime

On June 15, 1645, as Qing forces approached Hangzhou, Zheng Hongkui (Marquis of Jinglu) orchestrated Zhu Yujian’s departure for Fuzhou. Key moments followed:

– June 17: At Quzhou, Zhu publicly accepted the regent role, vowing to “personally lead armies to restore the imperial house.”
– July 10: After reaching Fuzhou under Zheng Zhilong’s protection, he formally became regent.
– July 27: Crowned emperor with the era name Longwu (“Flourishing and Martial”), establishing a government dubbed the “Celestial Prosperity Administration.”

The regime’s survival hinged on Fujian’s Zheng clan. Zhu ennobled Zheng Zhilong as Pinglu侯 and Zheng Hongkui as Dinglu侯, while appointing over 20 grand secretaries—an unprecedented move reflecting both desperation and political maneuvering.

The Rival Claimant: Prince of Lu’s Challenge

While Longwu consolidated power in Fujian, the Prince of Lu declared himself regent in Shaoxing, backed by Zhejiang loyalists. This created a damaging schism, as noted by official Zhang Huangyan: “Two suns cannot shine together; two sovereigns cannot stand side by side.” The rivalry:

– Legitimacy Debate: Lu supporters emphasized his closer blood ties to Chongzhen.
– Strategic Divide: Longwu prioritized allying with peasant rebels against the Qing—a policy Lu’s faction rejected.
– Resource Competition: Both courts vied for control of coastal provinces and military defectors.

Cultural and Military Mobilization

The Longwu court became a beacon for Ming loyalist culture:

– Scholar-Officials: Figures like Huang Daozhou and Zhang Kentang revived Confucian rituals while drafting resistance blueprints.
– Print Propaganda: Official gazettes circulated Longwu’s edicts, portraying him as the rightful heir to Zhu Yuanzhang’s legacy.
– Grassroots Resistance: Local militias in Jiangxi and Huguang adopted Longwu’s reign era, signaling defiance against Qing authority.

Militarily, the regime’s ambitions outstripped its capabilities. Zheng Zhilong’s naval dominance allowed coastal raids, but inland campaigns faltered without reliable armies. Huang Daozhou’s ill-fated 1645 expedition—launched with just 100 recruits—ended in his capture and martyrdom, exposing the regime’s fragility.

The Collapse and Enduring Legacy

By 1646, Qing forces under Bolo crushed Longwu’s defenses. Zhu Yujian was captured and executed near Tingzhou, but his 13-month reign left indelible marks:

– Symbol of Resistance: Later Ming loyalists, including Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong), invoked Longwu’s mandate to justify anti-Qing campaigns.
– Administrative Experiments: The “Dual Capital” system (Fuzhou/Ganzhou) presaged later Southern Ming strategies.
– Historiographical Impact: Qing-era texts like Suiwen Daji framed Longwu as a tragic hero, while Republican-era scholars recast him as a nationalist icon.

Modern assessments recognize the Longwu-Lu conflict as emblematic of the Ming’s fatal disunity. Yet Zhu Yujian’s vision—articulated in his 1645 proclamation to “recover the ancestral lands within three years”—continues to inspire narratives of perseverance in Chinese historiography.

As historian Lynn Struve observed, the Longwu regime’s brief flame illuminated both the Ming’s unextinguished spirit and the structural flaws that doomed its revival. Its story remains a poignant chapter in China’s perennial dialogue between fracture and renewal.