The Collapse of Ming Authority and Rise of Peasant Power

By the winter of 1642, China’s Ming Dynasty stood on the brink of collapse. Decades of famine, corruption, and heavy taxation had fueled widespread peasant revolts across northern China. Among these rebellions, Li Zicheng’s movement emerged as the most formidable challenge to imperial authority. Having consolidated control over much of Henan province, Li’s forces began establishing local governments that directly challenged Ming rule – the first steps toward creating what would become the Shun Dynasty.

This revolutionary momentum coincided with the Ming government’s catastrophic military failures against the invading Manchus in the northeast. As imperial forces divided their attention between northern invaders and internal rebellions, Li Zicheng’s peasant army swept south into Huguang (modern Hubei and Hunan), creating a territorial base spanning multiple provinces. The stage was set for a fundamental transformation of Chinese governance.

Founding the Xiangyang Regime: Blueprint for a New Dynasty

In spring 1643, Li Zicheng made the strategic city of Xiangyang his provisional capital, renaming it Xiangjing. Here, he established the institutional framework for a new central government that blended traditional Chinese bureaucracy with revolutionary peasant ideals. The political structure reflected both pragmatism and ideological vision:

– Central Administration: The “Changyi Government” (short for “Righteous Military and Civil Government”) served as the core administration, with Li assuming the title “Marshal of Righteousness.” While avoiding imperial titles initially, the government adopted Ming-style ministries (Personnel, Revenue, Rites, War, Justice, and Works) staffed by educated defectors like the scholar-official Niu Jinxing as Chancellor.

– Local Governance: In conquered territories, Li’s regime replaced Ming officials with a streamlined system of regional defenders (fangyushi), prefectural governors, and county magistrates. Contrary to later historical accounts that portrayed Li’s government as transient, contemporary records show robust military garrisons under commanders like Gao Yigong garrisoned key cities from Xiangyang to Jingzhou.

Military Reorganization: From Rebel Bands to Standing Army

Li’s greatest achievement was transforming his peasant forces into a disciplined military machine. The army restructured into five main field armies (Front, Rear, Left, Right, and Center) under legendary commanders like Liu Zongmin and Tian Jianxiu. Regional defense commands protected strategic locations:

– Northern Front: Zhou Fengwu guarded Zhengzhou against Ming loyalists
– Yangtze Defense: Bai Wang’s 6,000 troops secured Anlu against southern Ming forces
– Western Approaches: Ren Rongrong held the critical Jingzhou corridor

This dual military system—mobile strike forces paired with territorial garrisons—proved remarkably effective. By mid-1643, Li controlled territory from the Yellow River to Dongting Lake, fielding nearly a million troops according to Ming intelligence reports.

Economic Revolution: Land Reform and Agricultural Recovery

Unlike typical warlords, Li’s regime implemented sweeping economic policies that addressed peasant grievances:

1. Taxation Reform: The famous “Three-Year Tax Moratorium” abolished Ming surcharges that had driven farmers to rebellion
2. Land Redistribution: Confiscated estates of Ming nobility were redistributed, with records showing Li’s officers occupying former princely lands near Nanyang
3. Agricultural Support: The government provided oxen, seeds, and strict protections for farming (including capital punishment for cattle slaughter)

Contemporary Ming officials grudgingly acknowledged these policies’ effectiveness. A 1643 memorial reported: “The bandits distribute oxen and seeds, relieve the poor, and devote themselves to agriculture… The people all follow the rebels rather than our troops.”

The Cultural Battle: Legitimacy Through Scholarship

Recognizing the need for educated administrators, Li instituted examination systems that both mimicked and subverted Ming traditions:

– Recruitment Exams: The 1643 Jingzhou examinations posed the provocative essay topic “Two-Thirds of the Realm is Ours”—a direct challenge to Ming legitimacy
– Incentivized Service: Top graduates received silver rewards (300 taels for first place), while even unsuccessful candidates got stipends

This intellectual co-option proved devastating to Ming morale, as scholar-gentry increasingly defected to what appeared a viable new dynasty.

Legacy of China’s Forgotten Revolution

Though ultimately crushed by Manchu-Ming coalition forces in 1645, Li Zicheng’s Xiangyang regime represented one of imperial China’s most sophisticated peasant governments. Its innovations—decentralized military commands, progressive land policies, and meritocratic administration—briefly realized an alternative vision to Confucian absolutism. Modern historians note striking parallels between Li’s policies and later peasant revolutions, suggesting his movement deserves recognition as more than just a rebellion, but as China’s first attempt at revolutionary state-building.

The Shun Dynasty’s brief existence (1644-1645) continues to resonate as both a cautionary tale about the challenges of revolutionary governance and a testament to the organizational capabilities of peasant movements in Chinese history. Its collapse paved the way for Qing rule, but its memory endured—Mao Zedong would later cite Li Zicheng’s failure to consolidate power as a key historical lesson for communist revolutionaries.