A Pivotal Moment in Chinese History

The fifth day of the first lunar month in 960 CE marked one of the most significant transitions in Chinese imperial history. On this date, Zhao Kuangyin, the military commissioner of the Later Zhou dynasty, orchestrated a remarkably smooth transfer of power that would establish the Song dynasty. The seventh year of the Later Zhou’s Xiande era became the first year of Jianlong (“Establishing Prosperity”) under the new Song regime. This carefully chosen reign name reflected Zhao Kuangyin’s ambition to create an enduring dynasty that would break the pattern of short-lived regimes that had characterized the chaotic Five Dynasties period.

Zhao Kuangyin faced four immediate challenges as he assumed the throne: how to properly handle the deposed Later Zhou child emperor, how to treat former subjects of the previous dynasty, how to reward his loyal supporters, and how to manage the powerful regional military governors (jiedushi) who held considerable autonomous power throughout the country. His handling of these issues would set the tone for his reign and determine whether his new dynasty would survive or become another brief footnote in China’s turbulent tenth century.

The Chenqiao Mutiny: A Carefully Staged Transition

The so-called “Chenqiao Mutiny” represented one of history’s most meticulously planned transfers of power. While maintaining the appearance of being reluctantly elevated to emperor by his troops, Zhao Kuangyin had clearly prepared for every contingency. Before returning to the capital from Chenqiao Station, he established three strict rules for his soldiers, the first being: “The young emperor and empress dowager are those before whom I once knelt in submission. You must not insult or harm them.”

This calculated display of respect for the former rulers served multiple purposes. It maintained Zhao Kuangyin’s image as a reluctant ruler rather than a usurper, demonstrated his Confucian virtues of loyalty and propriety (even in overthrowing a dynasty), and signaled to former Later Zhou officials that they could expect fair treatment under the new regime.

When Zhao Kuangyin formally received the abdication of Emperor Chai Zongxun in the Chongyuan Hall, he ensured the transition followed proper ritual forms. The young emperor’s ceremonial role complete, Zhao Kuangyin then implemented a remarkably generous policy toward the fallen Later Zhou house that would become characteristic of his approach to governance.

The Extraordinary Treatment of a Deposed Dynasty

Zhao Kuangyin’s handling of the Later Zhou imperial family set a new standard in Chinese history for the treatment of deposed dynasties. He granted Chai Zongxun the title of Prince of Zheng and honored the empress dowager as the Zhou Empress Dowager, allowing them to relocate to Luoyang where they could live comfortably. The ancestral temples and tombs of the Later Zhou emperors continued to receive official maintenance and regular sacrifices, with these provisions codified into law.

This treatment proved exceptionally lenient compared to most dynastic transitions in Chinese history, where deposed rulers typically faced execution or forced suicide. The young Chai Zongxun, though losing his throne at age seven, lived until 973 when he died at age twenty. Upon his death, Zhao Kuangyin observed ten days of mourning, bestowed the posthumous title “Emperor Gong,” and ordered an elaborate funeral.

Several anecdotes from Song period sources illustrate Zhao Kuangyin’s personal involvement in protecting Later Zhou descendants. One notable story describes how he spared an infant son of Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, entrusting the child to the care of general Pan Mei rather than executing him as some advisors recommended. The child, named Pan Weiji, later became a regional governor.

Perhaps most remarkably, Song sources claim Zhao Kuangyin established a secret oath tablet in the ancestral temple that included provisions protecting the Chai family descendants. According to these accounts, each new emperor had to swear that Chai family members would never face execution, even for rebellion, but would instead be allowed to commit suicide in prison without implicating their relatives. While historians debate the authenticity of the oath tablet, the consistent favorable treatment of Chai descendants throughout the Song dynasty lends credence to some form of established policy.

Strategic Benefits of Benevolence

Zhao Kuangyin’s generous treatment of the Later Zhou house served clear political purposes beyond personal magnanimity. By demonstrating such consideration for his former rulers, he reassured former Later Zhou officials that they too could expect fair treatment. This proved crucial for maintaining governmental stability during the transition.

The new emperor understood that how he treated the former imperial family would be closely watched by the entire bureaucracy as an indicator of how he might treat them. As historian Wang Zhi later noted, “When people surrendered the imperial throne to you, bestowing some worthless titles meant nothing. Even spending some money meant nothing. But he wanted to make a gesture to the Later Zhou civil and military officials, sending them a signal: ‘I treat your former masters so well, you can rest assured.'”

This strategy succeeded remarkably well. The sight of their former rulers living comfortably under the new regime helped ease the anxieties of former Later Zhou officials, making them more willing to serve the Song administration. Zhao Kuangyin reinforced this message through his treatment of the former dynasty’s bureaucracy.

Continuity in Government: Retaining the Later Zhou Administration

Breaking with the traditional saying “a new emperor brings new ministers,” Zhao Kuangyin adopted a policy of “one emperor with two dynasties’ ministers.” He retained virtually the entire Later Zhou administrative apparatus, from the highest ministers down to local officials.

The three Later Zhou chancellors—Fan Zhi, Wang Pu, and Wei Renpu—all kept their positions. This proved particularly significant in Fan Zhi’s case, as he had initially condemned Zhao Kuangyin’s usurpation before reluctantly submitting. Rather than punishing this opposition, Zhao Kuangyin showed Fan great respect, personally visiting him during an illness and bestowing lavish gifts. This display of forgiveness helped transform Fan from a reluctant holdout into a loyal Song official.

Zhao Kuangyin extended this policy of continuity even to retired Later Zhou officials. He bestowed gifts and honors on former high-ranking ministers living in retirement, including special recognition for Li Gu, a respected former chancellor who had died shortly after the transition. This attention to retired officials—often neglected during regime changes—further demonstrated Zhao Kuangyin’s commitment to maintaining stability and winning over the scholar-official class.

The wisdom of this approach became evident when Song envoys traveled to provincial military governors to announce the dynastic change. As recorded in Chen Shidao’s Hou Shan Tan Cong, these powerful regional rulers would first inquire about who held key central government positions. Upon learning that most officials remained the same, they would willingly accept the new dynasty.

Handling Opposition with Tact

Not all former Later Zhou officials adapted easily to the new regime. Some, like Hanlin academician Wang Zhu, openly mourned the fallen dynasty during court banquets—behavior that could have warranted severe punishment. Zhao Kuangyin, however, displayed remarkable tolerance for such displays of lingering loyalty, recognizing that forced conversions would be counterproductive.

The sole exception to this pattern of leniency was Han Tong, the Later Zhou military commander who resisted the coup and was killed during the transition. Zhao Kuangyin posthumously honored Han with high titles and a grand funeral—likely a face-saving gesture—but later ordered Han’s portrait removed from a temple wall, revealing his true feelings about this opponent.

For the most part, Zhao Kuangyin’s conciliatory approach succeeded in winning over the bureaucracy. As he reportedly said regarding the sparing of a Later Zhou prince, “Having taken someone’s position, how could I bear to kill their son?” Such statements, whether sincere or calculated, helped establish his image as a benevolent ruler rather than a ruthless usurper.

Rewarding Loyalists and Maintaining Discipline

While retaining Later Zhou officials, Zhao Kuangyin also needed to reward those who had helped him gain the throne. He promoted his key supporters to important military positions: Han Lingkun became commander of the imperial guards, Shi Shouxin deputy commander, and other trusted generals received similarly high posts. His brother Zhao Guangyi (later Emperor Taizong) gained control of the palace guard.

Civilian advisors also received substantial rewards. Chief strategist Zhao Pu rose to become a key policy advisor, while other supporters obtained important positions in the evolving Song administration. These appointments balanced the need to reward loyalty with the imperative of maintaining an effective government.

However, Zhao Kuangyin also demonstrated he would not tolerate misconduct, even from supporters. Wang Yansheng, the officer who killed Han Tong, initially escaped punishment but later found himself demoted after attempting to extort gifts from Chancellor Wang Pu. This incident showed Zhao Kuangyin’s determination to maintain discipline and curb the predatory behavior that had characterized military officers during the Five Dynasties period.

Establishing Ritual and Symbolic Legitimacy

Beyond practical governance matters, Zhao Kuangyin moved quickly to establish the ritual and symbolic foundations of his dynasty’s legitimacy. These ceremonial acts, while perhaps seeming superficial today, held profound importance in medieval Chinese political culture for demonstrating the Mandate of Heaven’s transfer.

On his accession day, Zhao Kuangyin dispatched officials to perform sacrifices to heaven, earth, and the soil and grain altars—the fundamental rituals asserting imperial authority. He established an imperial ancestral temple, posthumously honoring four generations of ancestors as emperors. Following the theory of the Five Elements (wuxing), the Song adopted fire as its element (red as its color) to signify its succession from the wood-element Later Zhou.

Additional rituals included establishing proper music for state ceremonies, honoring his mother as empress dowager, and naming his wife empress. These acts followed traditional Confucian models but took on special significance given the Song’s origins in a military coup rather than conquest.

Winning Popular Support

Zhao Kuangyin complemented his elite-focused policies with measures aimed at securing broader popular support. He maintained strict military discipline during the transition, preventing looting that had accompanied previous dynastic changes. When opportunistic criminals took advantage of the situation, he had them publicly executed while compensating victims—a stark contrast to the lawlessness of earlier regime transitions.

The new emperor also implemented popular economic policies. He reformed the corvée labor system for maintaining the Bian Canal (vital for transporting grain to the capital), having the government provide food and clothing to workers rather than requiring them to supply their own. When grain prices dropped sharply in Hebei due to bumper harvests, he ordered state purchases at above-market prices to support farmers.

These early measures helped create what contemporaries described as an unusually smooth and orderly dynastic transition. As the Shao Shi Wen Jian Lu records, capital residents initially feared the violence typical of Five Dynasties power changes but were pleasantly surprised by the discipline of Zhao Kuangyin’s troops. Elderly residents reportedly remarked: “The Five Dynasties emperors all relied on military force to control the empire, none cultivated virtue among the common people. This emperor has not been on the throne a full day yet already shows love for the people. We are old, how fortunate to see a true Son of Heaven governing the world!”

The Emergence of a New Political Order

Zhao Kuangyin’s first months as emperor established patterns that would characterize his entire reign and distinguish the Song dynasty from its predecessors. His combination of military strength, political pragmatism, and Confucian-inspired governance created a new model of imperial rule that emphasized stability, bureaucratic governance, and cultural flourishing over military expansion.

The treatment of the Later Zhou house set a precedent for the Song’s generally humane approach to political opponents—a sharp contrast to the bloody purges common in earlier dynasties. The retention of Later Zhou officials established the principle that governance required professional administrators rather than just personal loyalists. The careful balancing of military rewards with strict discipline began the process of bringing the military under civilian control that would become a Song hallmark.

Perhaps most significantly, Zhao Kuangyin’s early attention to popular welfare and symbolic legitimacy demonstrated his understanding that lasting power required more than just control of armies—it needed broad acceptance of the regime’s right to rule. This comprehensive approach to state-building would enable the Song to break the cycle of short-lived regimes and establish one of China’s most enduring and culturally significant dynasties.

As the dust settled on the transition, Zhao Kuangyin could take satisfaction in having navigated the immediate challenges successfully. However, his work of consolidating Song authority had only begun. The powerful regional military governors remained potential threats, and the new emperor would soon face his first serious test of maintaining control over the entire empire. The lessons learned from these early transition decisions would shape his approach to these coming challenges.