Dawn of Centralized Societies in Ancient China

The late Yangshao period (5000-3000 BCE) witnessed a remarkable transformation in ancient Chinese settlement patterns. What began as scattered villages of roughly equal size gradually evolved into hierarchical networks of communities. By the Longshan era (3000-1900 BCE), this development accelerated dramatically, with clusters of small and medium sites emerging around large central settlements. Some regions saw the construction of fortified towns surrounded by rammed earth walls and protective moats – some of impressive scale.

This evolutionary trajectory reached its zenith during the Erlitou culture period (1900-1500 BCE), when settlement organization achieved unprecedented sophistication. The most striking development was the emergence of a royal capital that dominated regional centers, marking the birth of China’s first state-level society. Archaeological evidence reveals a clear three-tiered settlement hierarchy that reflects the social stratification of early Bronze Age China.

The Three-Tiered Settlement System

At the base of this hierarchy stood numerous ordinary villages covering 10,000-20,000 square meters. These communities left behind traces of small semi-subterranean or surface-level dwellings, modest graves, storage pits, and refuse heaps. Their material culture consisted primarily of utilitarian pottery and stone/bone tools – functional items showing little refinement. Burial goods were scarce, typically limited to simple ceramic vessels or stone implements.

The middle tier comprised regional centers like the Dongxiafeng site in Shanxi province. Covering nearly 200,000 square meters, this settlement featured concentric square-shaped ditches (120-150m and 150-200m per side respectively). Architectural remains include cave dwellings, semi-subterranean houses, and some surface structures. Crucially, archaeologists uncovered bronze artifacts, slag, and stone molds – evidence of metallurgical activity. The discovery of ceremonial stone chimes (qing) points to ritual practices. By the early Shang period, this site would develop into a full-fledged walled city.

Towering above all stood the royal capital at Yanshi Erlitou in Henan province. Spanning 5-6 million square meters at its peak, this metropolis contained everything from humble pit dwellings to palatial structures with rammed earth foundations. Specialized workshops produced bronze, bone, and ceramic goods on an industrial scale. The burial hierarchy (divided into Classes A-D) reflected strict social stratification:

– Class D (smallest): Under 0.8m² graves with few or no offerings
– Class C: 1m² graves sometimes containing pottery wine vessels
– Class B: ~2m² tombs with cinnabar, lacquerware, jade, and bronze ritual items
– Class A: Elite burials exceeding 20m² (though most were looted)

The Luoyang Basin formed the heartland of Erlitou civilization, with over 50 affiliated sites identified so far. This constellation of settlements clearly revolved around the Erlitou capital as its political and cultural nucleus.

Death and Social Order: The Burial System

Over 400 Erlitou-era graves have been excavated, mostly in the Luoyang region (300+ at Erlitou itself). While no royal necropolis has been found, existing evidence reveals three burial types:

A) Pit Graves (most common):
– Class A: Possible royal tombs (looted; one measured 5.3×4.3m)
– Class B: Elite burials with bronze/jade ritual items
– Class C: Commoner graves with basic pottery
– Class D: Humble pits with few goods

B) Cave Burials: Reused dwelling caves (rare; only at Dongxiafeng)

C) Discard Burials: Haphazard disposal in trash pits (likely slaves/criminals)

The distribution patterns reveal careful organization. At Erlitou’s VI district, 50+ graves clustered in two groups 10m apart, arranged in orderly rows. Some groupings suggest family units – adults flanking children, or potential spousal pairs. Strikingly, bronze workshops sometimes incorporated burials, with adults interred in production areas and infants buried peripherally – suggesting these craftsmen held special status.

Ritual and Social Hierarchy

The burial goods provide a vivid picture of Erlitou social structure and beliefs:

Ceramics: Wine vessels (especially jue cups) dominated funerary assemblages, often paired with he pitchers. Ritual sets combined bronze and lacquerware – a distinctive Erlitou practice. Everyday cooking vessels rarely appeared in tombs.

Bronze: The culture’s most revolutionary contribution was ritual bronze vessels – chiefly jue wine cups, followed by jia tripods and he pitchers. Weapons (axes, dagger-axes), bells, and turquoise-inlaid plaques also featured in elite graves.

Jade: Elite tombs contained exquisite ceremonial items – daggers, blades, scepters – all unused, suggesting ritual purposes. The mysterious “handle-shaped ornaments” remain enigmatic cult objects.

This material hierarchy clearly reflects the Erlitou social pyramid. While commoners made do with simple pottery, the elite monopolized access to bronze and jade – the very symbols of political and religious authority.

Legacy of China’s First Bronze Age Civilization

The Erlitou culture represents a watershed in Chinese history. Its settlement hierarchy and burial practices demonstrate:

1) The emergence of state-level social complexity
2) Specialized craft production (especially bronzeworking)
3) Institutionalized ritual systems using prestige goods
4) Clear stratification between elites and commoners

The culture’s most enduring legacy was establishing the template for Chinese bronze-age civilization. The combination of bronze ritual vessels with jade ornaments would become hallmarks of Shang and Zhou dynasty elite culture. Moreover, the spatial organization of Erlitou’s capital – with palatial compounds at the center – prefigured later Chinese urban planning principles.

While many questions remain (especially regarding the missing royal tombs), ongoing excavations continue to reveal how this pioneering culture laid the foundations for three millennia of Chinese civilization. The Erlitou phenomenon represents nothing less than the dawn of urban civilization in East Asia.