The Historical Background and Origins of the Three States

During the Warring States period, the state of Wei emerged as a formidable power under the leadership of Lord Wen of Wei, who implemented reforms with the help of Li Kui. By the time of King Hui of Wei, further reforms strengthened the state’s military and economic foundations.

Key reforms under King Hui of Wei included:

1. Hydraulic Engineering and Resource Development: The construction of the Hong Canal connecting the Yellow River to Pudian Marsh, along with extensive irrigation systems around the capital Daliang. The opening of Fengze Marsh “to benefit the people” (as recorded in the Zhushu Jinian).

2. Military Recruitment System: The creation of a selective “Warrior Corps” with exemptions from taxes and land grants, significantly enhancing military effectiveness. As noted in Xunzi’s Discussions on the Military, this system made “Wei’s warriors renowned under heaven.”

3. Defensive Infrastructure: In 359 BCE, Wei secured control of the strategic Zhi Road (near modern Jiyuan, Henan), connecting through the Taihang Mountains. In 358 BCE, General Long Jia built a western Great Wall to defend against Qin incursions.

Meanwhile, Qi grew powerful under King Wei of Qi’s reforms, while Qin’s strength surged due to Shang Yang’s Legalist reforms. As Wei moved its capital to Daliang, major states competed for alliances, setting the stage for large-scale conflicts.

Major Events and Turning Points

### The Battle of Guiling (354 BCE)

When Zhao attacked Wei’s ally Wei, Wei retaliated by besieging Zhao’s capital Handan with support from Song and Wei forces. Qi intervened under Tian Ji and Sun Bin, employing the famous “besiege Wei to rescue Zhao” strategy. Sun Bin feigned weakness to lure Wei’s general Pang Juan into an ambush at Guiling, capturing him. Though Wei’s main army remained intact, this defeat marked a turning point.

Simultaneously, Qin took advantage by attacking Wei’s western territories, capturing Shaoliang (southwest of modern Hancheng, Shaanxi). Chu also intervened, seizing lands between the Sui and Ru rivers.

### Wei’s Counteroffensive and Decline

Despite initial setbacks, Wei gradually reversed the situation. In 352 BCE, King Hui of Wei defeated the combined forces of Qi, Song, and Wei at Xiangling, forcing Qi to seek peace through Chu’s mediation. By 350 BCE, Wei had recovered Handan but was severely weakened. As noted in Lüshi Chunqiu, “After three years besieging Handan, Wei’s strength was exhausted, its people weary, and its treasury empty – from this point, Wei declined.”

### The Proclamation of Kings and the Fengze Conference

By 344 BCE, Wei’s power remained substantial. King Hui of Wei sought to organize a coalition against Qin under the pretext of paying homage to the Zhou king. However, Qin’s minister Shang Yang persuaded Wei to proclaim itself a “kingdom” first, leading to the Fengze Conference where Wei, Qin, and other states recognized each other’s royal titles. This diplomatic maneuver redirected Wei’s aggression toward Qi and Chu.

### The Battle of Maling (342-341 BCE)

When Wei attacked Han, Qi intervened under Sun Bin’s strategy. At Maling, Sun Bin used a “reducing campfires” ruse to lure Wei’s forces into a fatal ambush, killing Crown Prince Shen and General Pang Juan. This catastrophic defeat marked Wei’s irreversible decline.

Cultural and Social Impacts

The wars and diplomatic maneuvers of this period had profound effects:

1. Military Innovations: Strategies like “besiege Wei to rescue Zhao” and “reducing campfires” became classic military teachings, studied for centuries.

2. Diplomatic Revolution: The mutual recognition of royal titles (previously reserved for Zhou kings) reflected the complete breakdown of Zhou authority and the emergence of true independent kingdoms.

3. Economic Consequences: Constant warfare drained state resources while infrastructure projects like canals stimulated regional economies. The warrior recruitment systems created new social mobility paths.

4. Philosophical Responses: Thinkers like Mencius criticized the wars, lamenting how rulers “destroyed their people for land” (Mencius 7B1), while military theorists like Sun Bin developed sophisticated tactical doctrines.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The Wei-Qin-Qi conflicts established patterns that would define the Warring States period:

1. Balance of Power: The emergence of Qin, Qi, and Zhao as the “Three Powers” set the stage for future struggles. Wei’s decline demonstrated how overextension could undermine even strong states.

2. Diplomatic Precedents: The Fengze Conference’s royal proclamations legitimized the replacement of Zhou ritual authority with realpolitik alliances.

3. Military Doctrine: Sun Bin’s tactics became foundational to Chinese military thought, emphasizing deception, mobility, and psychological warfare.

4. Statecraft Models: The reforms in all three states – Wei’s legal codes, Qi’s administrative centralization, Qin’s meritocratic systems – provided templates for later unification under Qin.

These developments show how the mid-Warring States period transitioned from multi-state equilibrium to the eventual Qin dominance. The wars’ lessons about overextension, diplomatic flexibility, and military innovation remain relevant to strategic studies today.

The archaeological record confirms many details – from Wei’s canal systems to weapons found at battle sites like Guiling. These material remains, combined with transmitted texts like the Zhushu Jinian and Sun Bin’s Art of War, allow us to reconstruct this pivotal era when the old Zhou order gave way to a new imperial system.