From Steppe Nomads to Imperial Ambitions
In the turbulent 10th century, as China fractured into warring states during the Five Dynasties period, an extraordinary leader emerged from the northern steppes who would reshape East Asian history. Yelü Deguang (902-947), known posthumously as Emperor Taizong of Liao, transformed his Khitan people from nomadic horsemen into rulers of a vast empire straddling the Great Wall.
The Khitans’ origins trace back to ancient legends of a man riding a white horse from the Tu River meeting a woman in a blue oxcart from the Huang River. Their eight children supposedly founded the original Khitan tribes. By the Northern Wei period (386-534), these tribes – with mysterious names like Xiwan Dan and Yuyu Ling – had established themselves along the Liao River basin, alternating between trading furs with Chinese settlers and launching devastating raids.
The Making of a Khitan Emperor
Yelü Deguang’s path to power began with his father Yelü Abaoji, the visionary who first united the Khitan tribes. In 907, Abaoji became khan through tribal election, then shocked tradition by declaring himself emperor in 916, modeling his “Great Khitan State” after Chinese imperial systems while maintaining steppe military traditions. His conquests stretched from the Bohai Sea to the Ordos Desert.
When Abaoji died in 926, a dramatic succession struggle unfolded. Though eldest son Yelü Bei was favored by their father – having been made “King of Dongdan” after conquering the sophisticated Bohai kingdom – their mother Empress Dowager Shulü masterminded Deguang’s rise. In a staged political theater, tribal leaders “spontaneously” chose Deguang by grasping his horse’s reins, forcing Bei’s acquiescence.
The Game-Changing Conquest of the Sixteen Prefectures
Deguang’s reign transformed regional geopolitics through his 936 intervention in China’s civil wars. When Later Tang general Shi Jingtang sought Khitan help against his emperor, Deguang extracted an extraordinary price: the strategic “Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun” (modern Beijing to Datong). This mountainous region, containing the Great Wall’s crucial passes, gave the Khitans:
1. Permanent footholds south of the steppe
2. Control over China’s northern defense system
3. Agricultural lands and skilled Han Chinese populations
Shi Jingtang’s humiliating vassalage – including addressing the 34-year-old Deguang as “father” while being 45 himself – created a template for Song-Liao relations lasting centuries. The Khitan ruler’s 938 administrative reforms established dual governance: Chinese-style bureaucracy for sedentary populations while maintaining tribal structures for steppe peoples.
The Zenith and Sudden Fall
Flush with success, Deguang overreached in 946-947 by conquering the Later Jin dynasty that Shi Jingtang had founded. His triumphant entry into Kaifeng saw him proclaimed emperor of China in early 947, with the Khitan state renamed the “Great Liao.” But his forces, unaccustomed to governing agricultural societies, provoked widespread rebellions through looting and harsh policies.
The emperor’s famous lament – “I never knew Chinese people could be so hard to control!” – preceded his disastrous retreat north. Plagued by guerrilla attacks, his army committed horrific massacres like the destruction of Xiangzhou, where only 700 civilians survived. Then, in a twist of fate mirroring his father’s death, Deguang succumbed to illness at 45 near present-day Zhao County, marking the end of Khitan expansionism.
The Liao Legacy That Shaped East Asia
Though Deguang’s empire-building proved ephemeral, his institutional innovations endured. The Liao’s “dual administration” system became a model for subsequent dynasties ruling multi-ethnic territories, from the Jin to the Qing. The loss of the Sixteen Prefectures haunted Song dynasty strategists for generations, forcing massive military expenditures on defense rather than unification campaigns.
Modern parallels abound in how resource-rich steppe peoples leverage their advantages against more technologically advanced neighbors. Deguang’s story illuminates the perennial tensions between nomadic and sedentary civilizations – a dynamic that continues influencing Eurasian geopolitics today. Archaeological discoveries, like recently excavated Liao dynasty tombs with stunning murals blending Khitan and Chinese motifs, keep revealing this pivotal yet overlooked empire’s sophistication.