The Strategic Crossroads: From Hezhou to the Yangtze

In the turbulent summer of 1355, the Red Turban Rebellion reached a decisive phase as Zhu Yuanzhang—then a mid-ranking commander under the Longfeng regime—emerged from the crucible of the Hezhou campaign with hardened military prowess. The strategic triumvirate of Guo Tianxu, Zhang Tianyou, and Zhu Yuanzhang made a fateful decision: to cross the Yangtze River and establish a foothold in Jiangnan, China’s fertile southern heartland.

This bold move was facilitated by Zhu’s growing military dominance. His forces, now numbering over 30,000, dwarfed those of his nominal superiors. A critical addition came in April 1355 when the brilliant tactician Chang Yuchun defected from bandit leader Liu Ju. Recognizing Zhu’s strategic vision, Chang joined as a vanguard commander, later becoming one of Ming’s founding generals alongside Xu Da.

The Crossing That Changed History

On June 1, 1355, Zhu launched his amphibious assault from Hezhou. Nature initially resisted—a dense fog stalled the fleet for a day. When the mist cleared, Zhu divided his forces into two prongs converging at Niuzhu Jetty. His choice of landing site at Caishi (modern Ma’anshan) demonstrated tactical genius: lightly defended yet strategically positioned near Taiping Prefecture.

The assault unfolded as predicted. Yuan dynasty defenses crumbled under Zhu’s coordinated strikes, with Caishi and its riverine fortifications falling swiftly. But victory brought unexpected challenges—starving soldiers, fixated on looting grain stores, threatened to retreat to Hezhou. In a moment echoing Xiang Yu’s “burning the boats,” Zhu ordered the fleet’s cables severed, sending vessels drifting downstream. His address to the troops blended carrot and stick: “Taiping ahead holds wealth untold. Take it, and all shall be yours.”

Taiping: The First Laboratory of Ming Governance

The siege of Taiping revealed Zhu’s evolving statecraft. After breaching the walls defended by Yuan commander Wanzhe Buhua, his troops began pillaging—until Zhu imposed draconian discipline through prohibitions co-drafted with advisor Li Shanchang. This established a pattern: military conquest followed by rapid civilian stabilization.

Administrative innovations followed:
– Taiping Prefecture: Replacing Yuan’s lu (circuit) system with fu (prefecture)
– Taiping Xingguo Wing Marshal Office: A proto-Ming military-civilian structure
– Strategic Appointments: Intellectuals like Pan Tingjian and Tao An incorporated into governance

Though nominally third in command (Left Deputy Marshal), Zhu’s de facto power eclipsed his superiors. Contemporary chronicler Yu Ben noted: “Though three marshals shared authority, all decisions flowed from Zhu. The troops followed him, the people looked to him—power had consolidated in his hands.”

The Chen Yexian Gambit: A Deadly Chess Game

Yuan forces counterattacked through a pincer movement:
1. Naval Blockade: Manzi Haiya sealed the Yangtze at Caishi
2. Land Assault: “Righteous Army” commander Chen Yexian (a sinicized Mongol named Esen) advanced with 30,000 troops

Chen’s forces represented a sociological paradox—ethnic Han fighting for the Yuan. As Zhu later lamented, northern China’s centuries under Liao, Jin, and Yuan rule had eroded traditional “Huaxia” consciousness. Many, like scholar Wang Tong, saw themselves as Yuan loyalists.

After capturing Chen in battle, Zhu employed psychological warfare. Their exchange revealed much:
Chen: “Why spare me?”
Zhu: “In these chaotic times, heroes rise like bamboo after rain. Surely a man like you understands?”

The subsequent campaign against Nanjing (then called Jiqing) became a masterclass in Machiavellian strategy. Zhu manipulated Chen into betraying his nominal allies Guo Tianxu and Zhang Tianyou, resulting in their deaths at the Qinhuai River—conveniently eliminating rivals. By November 1355, Zhu stood unchallenged as supreme commander.

The Nanjing Campaign: Foundation of an Empire

March 1356 witnessed Zhu’s masterpiece. After crushing Manzi Haiya’s navy with innovative ship-mounted artillery, his forces converged on Nanjing. The final assault combined psychological and military pressure:

– Psychological Warfare: Troops drummed and shouted from 5 li away, demoralizing defenders
– Multi-pronged Attack: Simultaneous assaults overwhelmed Yuan loyalist Fushou, who died defiantly at “Turtle Tower”

Zhu’s treatment of Fushou—granting honorable burial and later enshrining him—showcased his understanding of symbolic politics. Administrative reforms followed immediately:

1. Jiqing → Yingtian Prefecture: Strategic renaming (“Responding to Heaven”)
2. Jiangnan Branch Secretariat Established: Zhu as Pingzhang (Chief Administrator)
3. Military Reorganization: Creation of the Five Wings Marshal System

The Clash with Zhang Shicheng: Prelude to Empire

Zhu’s eastward expansion inevitably collided with salt merchant-turned-warlord Zhang Shicheng. Key engagements included:

– Battle of Changzhou (1357): A six-month siege featuring Xu Da’s tactical brilliance
– Taihu Lake Campaigns: Naval battles where Yu Tonghai continued fighting after an arrow pierced his eye
– Capture of Zhang Shide: Zhang Shicheng’s brother, executed after Changshu fell

Zhang’s August 1357 surrender to the Yuan bought temporary respite, but Zhu’s control of the Taihu region marked a strategic triumph. Concurrent southern campaigns secured Ningguo and Huizhou, completing a pincer around future Ming territories.

Institutional Foundations: The Military System of 1356-1358

Zhu’s military reforms created the framework for Ming’s weisuo system:

1. Five Wings Marshal Offices
– Central: Chang Yuchun
– Left/Right: Shao Rong (Guo Zixing’s former subordinate)
– Front/Rear: Emerging talents like Deng Yu

2. Elite Units
– Yellow Banner Vanguard: Personal bodyguards with ivory ID tags
– Iron Armor Troops: Reformed bandit forces
– Silver Medal Vanguard: Special operations unit

This structure balanced factions—Zhu’s original followers, Guo Zixing’s remnants, and surrendered forces—while ensuring centralized control.

Legacy: The Making of an Emperor

By late 1357, Zhu controlled Jiangnan’s core—from Nanjing to Hangzhou Bay. His achievements went beyond territory:

– Economic Foundations: “Yingtian Tongbao” currency issuance
– Cultural Policy: Recruitment of Confucian scholars
– Military Doctrine: Combined arms warfare integrating naval, artillery, and infantry

As Ming Taizu would later reflect, these years transformed a rebel lieutenant into an empire-builder. The campaigns of 1355-1357 didn’t just conquer land—they forged the institutional and philosophical blueprint for three centuries of Ming rule. The peasant who crossed the Yangtze in 1355 had begun his metamorphosis into the architect of China’s last native dynasty.