The Rise of Competing Warlords in Yuan China’s Collapse

The mid-14th century witnessed the disintegration of Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty rule, as rebel factions carved out regional kingdoms across China. Among these warlords, Zhu Yuanzhang (later Hongwu Emperor) emerged as a dominant force after his 1363 victory over rival Chen Youliang at Lake Poyang. However, another challenger remained—Zhang Shicheng, the self-proclaimed “King of Wu” controlling the prosperous Jiangnan region. Zhu’s fury at this rival claim to the “Wu” title (“Two kings cannot share one mountain,” he declared) set the stage for a decisive campaign that would reshape China’s political landscape.

This conflict unfolded against a backdrop of competing ideologies. While Zhang Shicheng prioritized regional stability over expansion, Zhu Yuanzhang—advised by the legendary strategist Liu Bowen—embraced relentless territorial ambition. Meanwhile, in distant Sichuan, the one-eyed warlord Ming Yuzhen built his Xia Empire, creating a triangular power dynamic that influenced Zhu’s strategic calculus.

The Four-Step Conquest Strategy

In 1364, Zhu Yuanzhang convened secret war councils with Liu Bowen to devise the campaign against Zhang Shicheng. The resulting strategy reflected sophisticated military geography:

1. Securing the Western Flank: Neutralizing potential threats from Ming Yuzhen’s Xia Empire through diplomacy
2. Northern Campaign: Capturing Zhang’s territories north of the Yangtze (Taizhou, Xuzhou, Huai’an)
3. Southern Pincer: Seizing critical cities Hangzhou and Huzhou to isolate Suzhou
4. Final Siege: Concentrating forces against Zhang’s capital at Suzhou

Liu Bowen’s insistence on gradual encirclement rather than direct assault proved prescient. “Hangzhou and Huzhou are Zhang’s extended arms,” he argued. “Cut these first, and Suzhou becomes helpless.” This phased approach contrasted sharply with Zhu’s earlier blitzkrieg against Chen Youliang, demonstrating adaptive warfare tactics.

The Sichuan Wildcard: Ming Yuzhen’s Xia Empire

While planning Zhang Shicheng’s defeat, Zhu’s court remained wary of the Xia Empire in Sichuan. Ming Yuzhen—a former lieutenant of rebel leader Xu Shouhui—had carved an independent state praised for its light taxation (10% levy) and agricultural-military colonies. His 1363 coronation as Xia Emperor created a third power center, albeit one geographically constrained by mountain fortresses.

Ming’s unique governance combined pragmatic administration with ideological continuity from Xu Shouhui’s Millenarian Buddhist rebellion. His capital at Chongqing became a refuge for scholars fleeing northern wars, while his single-eyed gaze (having lost the right eye in battle) became symbolic of his focused leadership.

Diplomatic Maneuvers and Strategic Deception

In 1365, Zhu Yuanzhang initiated cautious diplomacy with Ming Yuzhen, sending envoys bearing flattering letters addressed to “Emperor of Xia.” The correspondence proposed a post-Yuan division of China—Zhu controlling the east while Ming retained Sichuan. Ming’s advisors saw through this as tactical appeasement during the coming Zhang Shicheng campaign.

Ming’s measured reply—asserting Xia’s 200,000 veteran troops while pledging neutrality—revealed his defensive posture. As advisor Liu Zhen noted: “We cannot defeat Zhu now, but neither are we paper tigers.” This exchange allowed Zhu to secure his western flank, though Liu Bowen continued warning about Sichuan’s latent threat.

The Campaign Unfolds (1365-1367)

Zhu’s armies executed Liu Bowen’s plan with precision:

– Phase 1 (1365): Northern victories at Huai’an and Suqian severed Zhang’s supply lines
– Phase 2 (1366): Southern forces captured Huzhou after a grueling six-month siege
– Final Blow (1367): Isolated Suzhou fell after ten months, with Zhang Shicheng committing suicide

Throughout this campaign, Ming Yuzhen remained inactive—not due to Zhu’s diplomacy, but because of his sudden death in March 1366 at age 38. His final words to advisors—”Defend Sichuan, avoid expansion”—reflected his fundamentally defensive worldview.

Legacy and Historical Assessment

Zhu Yuanzhang’s victory over Zhang Shicheng eliminated the last major rival before the Ming Dynasty’s 1368 proclamation. The campaign demonstrated:

– Strategic Patience: Gradual encirclement proved more effective than direct assault
– Peripheral Diplomacy: Neutralizing Ming Yuzhen allowed focus on primary targets
– Geopolitical Awareness: Liu Bowen’s emphasis on Sichuan’s potential threat foreshadowed later Ming campaigns to annex the region

Ming Yuzhen’s Xia Empire outlived him briefly before surrendering to Ming forces in 1371. Historians debate whether his early death altered China’s unification timeline—had he lived, Sichuan might have prolonged resistance.

Ultimately, this episode reveals the complex interplay between personal ambition (Zhu), contentment (Zhang), and regionalism (Ming) during China’s late medieval power transition. The tripartite struggle underscored how geography, diplomacy, and individual leadership styles collectively shaped the Ming Empire’s foundation.