The Gathering Storm: Imperialist Ambitions in Late 19th Century East Asia

The late 19th century witnessed the transformation of Western capitalist powers into imperialist states, their gaze fixed on the few remaining unclaimed territories. In East Asia, China and Korea became prime targets for expansion. Among the competing powers, Japan emerged as the most aggressive contender.

Following the 1884 Gapsin Coup in Korea, Japan’s influence grew rapidly, fueling its ambitions toward both Korea and China. By June 1885, Japan’s leadership, including Ito Hirobumi, proposed a decade-long military expansion plan to prepare for a full-scale invasion of China. In 1887, hardline militarists led by Yamagata Aritomo drafted the Strategy for the Conquest of Qing China, outlining a five-year preparation period. The plan called for a two-pronged attack: a main assault on Beijing and secondary forces seizing strategic points along the Yangtze River to block southern Qing reinforcements.

Japan’s rapid industrialization provided the material foundation for military expansion, but this came at great cost to its people. The 1890 economic crisis brought widespread unemployment, agricultural failures, and rice riots, pushing Japan’s rulers toward foreign aggression as a solution to domestic unrest. By 1892, Japan completed its military buildup three years ahead of schedule. By May 1893, Japan established a wartime headquarters, boasting 63,000 standing troops and 230,000 reserves, with a navy surpassing China’s Beiyang Fleet in tonnage.

The Qing Dynasty’s Fatal Divisions

While Japan prepared meticulously, the Qing government remained fractured and unprepared. The court was divided between the conservative “Empress Dowager Faction” (led by Cixi) and the reformist “Emperor Faction” (supporting Guangxu). Cixi, though officially retired in 1889, retained real power. Her faction underestimated Japan’s threat, becoming complacent after establishing the Beiyang Fleet.

Tragically, Prince Chun diverted naval funds to renovate the Summer Palace for Cixi’s 60th birthday celebrations. After 1888, the Beiyang Fleet acquired no new ships; after 1891, it stopped purchasing ammunition. By 1894, China’s naval capabilities lagged significantly behind Japan’s. The court’s internal power struggles and misplaced priorities sealed China’s fate in the coming war.

The Spark: The Donghak Rebellion and Japan’s Trap

In April 1894, the Donghak peasant uprising erupted in Korea’s Jeolla province. The rebels, protesting corruption and foreign influence, quickly gained control of southern Korea. Japan saw an opportunity. While secretly supporting the rebels through right-wing groups like the Gen’yōsha, Japan publicly urged China to send troops to suppress the rebellion—a carefully laid trap.

Believing Japanese assurances of neutrality, China dispatched 2,000 troops to Asan on June 6. Japan, however, had already decided to intervene. By June 10, Japanese forces occupied Seoul, soon outnumbering Chinese troops ten to one. When China protested, Japan demanded joint “reforms” in Korea—an ultimatum China couldn’t accept without surrendering sovereignty.

The War Unfolds: From Naval Clashes to Continental Disaster

The war began officially on August 1, 1894, though hostilities had started earlier. Key engagements included:

### The Battle of Pungdo (July 25, 1894)
Japanese warships ambushed Chinese vessels near Asan, sinking the British-flagged transport Kowshing and killing 700 Chinese troops—an act that shocked the international community but drew only mild British protest after Japanese apologies.

### The Battle of Pyongyang (September 15, 1894)
Chinese forces, though holding strong defensive positions, collapsed after commander Ye Zhichao fled. The chaotic retreat across the Yalu River left northern Korea undefended.

### The Battle of the Yellow Sea (September 17, 1894)
In history’s first major steel warship engagement, China’s Beiyang Fleet fought bravely but suffered heavy losses. Admiral Ding Ruchang’s flagship Dingyuan was crippled; Captain Deng Shichang famously rammed his burning ship Zhiyuan toward the Japanese Yoshino before sinking. Despite Japanese ships also taking damage, China’s decision to retreat to Weihaiwei ceded control of the seas.

### The Fall of Lüshun (November 1894)
Japan’s brutal capture of the port (then called Port Arthur) included a massacre of 20,000 civilians—a war crime that foreshadowed 20th-century atrocities.

The Treaty of Shimonoseki and Its Aftermath

By April 1895, with its military defeated and Beijing threatened, China sued for peace. The resulting Treaty of Shimonoseki imposed harsh terms:
– Recognition of Korean “independence” (effectively a Japanese protectorate)
– Cession of Taiwan, Penghu Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsula
– 200 million taels silver indemnity (triple China’s annual revenue)
– New treaty ports and rights to establish factories in China

The treaty’s severity triggered the “Triple Intervention” by Russia, Germany, and France—not from sympathy for China, but to protect their own interests. Japan was forced to return Liaodong (for an additional 30 million taels) but kept Taiwan.

Taiwan’s Resistance: A Nation Betrayed, A People Unconquered

When news of Taiwan’s cession broke, protests erupted island-wide. Scholar-gentry like Qiu Fengjia declared the short-lived “Republic of Formosa,” while militia leaders such as Xu Xiang and Jiang Shaozu organized guerrilla resistance. From June to October 1895, Taiwanese fighters and remaining Qing troops under Liu Yongfu inflicted 32,000 Japanese casualties before being overwhelmed.

Though Japan established control, resistance continued for years—a testament to Taiwanese resilience that would inspire later anti-colonial movements across Asia.

Legacy: The War That Shaped Modern Asia

The First Sino-Japanese War marked several turning points:
1. Japan’s Rise: Proved Asia could defeat a Western-style empire, beginning Japan’s imperial dominance until 1945.
2. China’s Decline: Exposed Qing weakness, sparking reform movements and eventual revolution.
3. Imperialism Accelerated: Triggered the “scramble for concessions” as Western powers carved spheres of influence in China.
4. Korean Tragedy: Ended China’s suzerainty, beginning Japan’s 35-year occupation of Korea.

The war’s lessons about unpreparedness, divided leadership, and the costs of underestimating adversaries remain eerily relevant in today’s geopolitics. Most profoundly, it set East Asia on the collision course that would lead to even greater conflicts in the century to come.