The Collapse of the Provisional Government and the Rise of Lenin

In February 1917, Russia’s Provisional Government introduced Western-style parliamentary democracy, but its rule was short-lived. By October, Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power, declaring “All Power to the Soviets”—the elected councils of workers, soldiers, and peasants. While Lenin inherited some policies from the Provisional Government, such as free elections for a Constituent Assembly, his vision for Russia was far more radical.

On November 25, 1917, Russia held its first democratic elections, with two-thirds of the population voting for 707 representatives. The Constituent Assembly convened on January 5, 1918, in the Tauride Palace—a historic moment marking Russia’s first freely elected parliament. Yet, as writer Vasily Grossman later reflected, the initial euphoria of revolution soon gave way to fear and repression. Lenin, driven by revolutionary zeal, tightened his grip on power, leaving no room for retreat.

The Bolsheviks’ Struggle for Survival

The Bolsheviks faced immediate resistance. Civil servants, bankers, railway workers, and journalists went on strike, paralyzing the economy. While urban centers supported Lenin, rural areas backed rival parties like the Socialist Revolutionaries. Internationally, Western powers grew hostile as Russia sought to exit World War I.

To secure peasant support, Lenin enacted a sweeping land reform, redistributing estates to rural communes—a policy originally championed by the Socialist Revolutionaries. This temporary measure won over millions of peasants, though they would later lose their land during Stalin’s collectivization in the 1930s.

Meanwhile, Leon Trotsky, as People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs, negotiated with Germany. The resulting Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918) ceded vast territories—Finland, the Baltics, Poland, and Ukraine—costing Russia a quarter of its population and resources. Lenin defended the humiliating treaty as necessary to buy time for the revolution.

The Execution of the Romanovs and the Outbreak of Civil War

The fate of the Romanovs symbolized the revolution’s brutality. After Nicholas II abdicated in March 1917, Britain refused asylum to the tsar, and the Bolsheviks imprisoned the family in Yekaterinburg. On July 16, 1918, they were executed in a basement by Cheka officer Yakov Yurovsky. The murders were meant to eliminate any rallying point for counter-revolutionaries.

The Romanovs’ remains were hidden for decades, only identified in 1991 through DNA testing. In 2000, the Russian Orthodox Church canonized them as martyrs, transforming their legacy from despised monarchs to tragic symbols.

The Russian Civil War: Reds vs. Whites

The Bolsheviks (Reds) faced a coalition of anti-communist forces (Whites), including former tsarist officers, landowners, anarchists, and nationalist groups. Foreign intervention intensified the conflict: Britain, France, the U.S., and even the Czech Legion backed the Whites, supplying weapons and troops.

Trotsky emerged as the Red Army’s architect, imposing strict discipline and conscription. His leadership during the defense of Petrograd (1919) became legendary—his armored train, fiery speeches, and ruthless tactics turned the tide. By 1920, the Red Army had grown to 3 million soldiers.

The War’s Turning Points and Aftermath

Key battles, like the defense of Petrograd and the recapture of Ukraine, shifted momentum toward the Reds. Germany’s defeat in World War I allowed Lenin to reclaim lost territories, though Poland’s invasion of Ukraine under Józef Piłsudski marked a setback.

By 1921, the Bolsheviks had defeated the Whites, but at a staggering cost: millions dead, famine, and economic ruin. The revolution’s ideals of democracy had given way to one-party rule, setting the stage for Stalin’s dictatorship.

Legacy of the Revolution and Civil War

The Russian Civil War reshaped the 20th century. It solidified communist rule, inspired global revolutionary movements, and deepened East-West divisions. The Romanovs’ canonization and the war’s brutal memory still resonate in Russia today, reflecting a nation grappling with its turbulent past.

Lenin’s gamble—sacrificing democracy for survival—left an ambiguous legacy: a revolution that promised liberation but delivered authoritarianism. As Grossman observed, Russia followed Lenin blindly, only to find the path “growing ever more perilous.”