The Rise of a Pragmatic Statesman

Zhang Juzheng (1525–1582), the Grand Secretary of the Ming Dynasty during the Wanli Emperor’s reign, remains one of China’s most controversial yet effective statesmen. His tenure was marked by sweeping reforms, including the Single Whip Tax System and the Kao Cheng Fa (Performance Evaluation Law), which centralized bureaucratic accountability. However, his legacy is equally defined by his uncompromising approach to dissent—most infamously, the brutal suppression of the Duzhang people, an ethnic minority in Sichuan.

The Duzhang Rebellion: A Clash of Cultures

The Duzhang, a semi-autonomous ethnic group in southwestern China, had long resisted Ming authority. Their mountainous strongholds made them difficult to subdue, and their raids on Han settlements strained relations with the imperial court. By the 1570s, tensions escalated into open rebellion. Zhang Juzheng, viewing the Duzhang as a threat to stability, ordered their annihilation.

Under General Liu Xian and Governor Zeng Xingwu, Ming forces launched a scorched-earth campaign. Villages were razed, and survivors were forcibly assimilated. Zeng reported that the campaign “expanded state territory by 400 li,” but the human cost was staggering. The Duzhang, as a distinct cultural and military force, were erased from history.

The Moral Debate: Extermination vs. Assimilation

Zhang’s policy sparked fierce debate. Sichuan’s landed elites supported the crackdown—the Duzhang’s lands were auctioned, enriching local magnates. But others, like retired official Zhao Zhenji, condemned the violence. In a letter to Zhang, Zhao invoked Zhuge Liang’s lenient pacification of the Nanman tribes, arguing for cultural assimilation over slaughter.

Zhang’s rebuttal was pragmatic: “Assimilation takes time; we have none.” To him, rebellion was a wildfire requiring a “bucket of cold water”—extermination. Still, he permitted Zeng Xingwu’s half-hearted assimilation program. Surviving Duzhang were forced to adopt Han clothing, diet, and customs. Within a year, their identity vanished—a testament to Zhang’s brutal efficiency.

The Iron Fist of Justice: Legal Reforms and the Case of Li Wei

Zhang’s ruthlessness extended to domestic governance. In 1573, when Empress Dowager Li proposed a pardon for criminals to celebrate her son’s ascension, Zhang objected: “To spare the wicked is to harm the good.” Citing Confucian and Legalist principles, he argued that “spring nurtures, autumn kills”—a natural order demanding harsh justice.

His resolve was tested in 1574, when Empress Dowager Li’s father, Li Wei, embezzled 28,000 taels of silver to build bridges. The scandal threatened Zhang’s anti-corruption reforms. Facing a dilemma—punishing Li Wei would alienate his royal patrons—Zhang engineered a masterful compromise: Li Wei was stripped of his treasury post but spared severe punishment. The incident showcased Zhang’s political dexterity, balancing law and patronage.

Legacy: Order at What Cost?

Zhang Juzheng’s reign stabilized the Ming Dynasty but at a moral price. His suppression of the Duzhang and rigid legalism drew comparisons to the Qin Dynasty’s authoritarianism. Yet, his reforms temporarily revitalized the bureaucracy and economy. Modern scholars debate whether his methods were necessary evils or excessive brutality.

His handling of Li Wei’s case, meanwhile, reveals the contradictions of his rule—a man who preached equality before the law yet navigated the compromises of absolute power. As China’s history oscillates between centralization and fragmentation, Zhang’s legacy endures as a case study in the costs of order.

Conclusion: The Weight of the Axe

Zhang Juzheng’s story is one of paradoxes: a reformer who crushed dissent, a legalist who bent rules for survival. His extinction of the Duzhang and iron-fisted governance reflect a timeless tension—how far should a state go to preserve itself? For Zhang, the answer was simple: as far as necessary. Whether history judges him a savior or tyrant, his impact remains indelible.