The late Eastern Han dynasty was a period rife with political intrigue, factional struggles, and social unrest. Among the many upheavals that marked this era, the Second Partisan Prohibition stands out as a critical episode revealing the complex dynamics of imperial succession, court politics, and the delicate balance between eunuchs, officials, and aristocratic families. This article delves into the historical context, key events, cultural ramifications, and enduring legacy of this turbulent chapter in Chinese history.

Historical Context: The Waning Years of the Eastern Han Dynasty

By the mid-2nd century CE, the Eastern Han dynasty was grappling with serious internal challenges. The central authority had weakened, and influential court eunuchs, imperial consorts’ families, and factions among scholar-officials frequently clashed for dominance. The reign of Emperor Huan was marked by these tensions, culminating in his death in early 168 CE and triggering a complicated succession crisis.

Emperor Huan, known personally as Liu Zhi, had no surviving male heir. His death left a power vacuum at a critical moment. The imperial court was fragile, and the political landscape was shadowed by fears of eunuch conspiracies and factional reprisals. Against this backdrop, the powerful Empress Dowager Dou, the emperor’s widow, rose to prominence and played a pivotal role in shaping the ensuing events.

The Ambition of the Dou Family: Empress Dowager Dou’s Ascendancy

Following Emperor Huan’s demise, his body lay in state at the Beigong Deyang Hall, awaiting the formal succession procedures. According to ritual, the new emperor would be enthroned before the deceased emperor’s coffin, and his mother elevated to Empress Dowager. However, with no heir apparent, the court faced uncertainty.

On January 26, 168 CE, the Grand Commandant Zhou Jing led the court officials to honor Empress Dou Miao as the new Empress Dowager, entrusting her with the authority to oversee the selection of the new emperor. Dou Miao was a young woman, likely in her late twenties or early thirties, who now had to shoulder the immense responsibilities of managing the mourning rites, selecting a successor, and overseeing the transition into a new era with the changing of the year.

Despite the heavy burdens, Empress Dowager Dou’s actions revealed her complex character — driven by both personal emotions and political ambition. During the mourning period, she ordered the execution of Tian Sheng, Emperor Huan’s favored consort, and contemplated the elimination of other favored concubines. This ruthless move was likely motivated by jealousy and a desire to consolidate power by removing rivals associated with the late emperor.

Dou Miao’s resolve was further evidenced by her collaboration with her father, Dou Wu, a seasoned official with considerable influence. Together, they sought to restore the Dou family’s prominence — a family historically connected to the imperial throne through previous empresses. The Dou clan aimed to resurrect what might be called the “Queen Mother’s Family” dominance, a political tradition wherein the Empress Dowager’s family wielded substantial authority.

Stabilizing the Court: Alliance with the Scholar-Officials

A critical aspect of the Dou family’s strategy was securing the support of the scholar-official class — the Confucian literati who staffed the bureaucracy and upheld the moral and administrative standards of the state. Historically, the relationship between empress families and the scholar-gentry was delicate but essential. While noble families such as the Ma, Dou, and Deng clans had previously faced criticism from officials, their power relied heavily on maintaining a stable alliance with the literati.

To this end, Empress Dowager Dou issued an edict recalling the retired Grand Tutor Chen Fan to the court. Chen Fan was a respected Confucian scholar and official whose integrity and moral standing could reassure the bureaucracy. He was appointed Grand Tutor and tasked with jointly overseeing the affairs of the imperial secretariat alongside Dou Wu and the Minister of Works, Hu Guang.

Chen Fan’s return was a calculated move to stabilize the government and strengthen the Dou faction’s legitimacy. His presence pacified anxious officials, many of whom had been reluctant to attend court amid fears of eunuch interference. The alliance between the Dou family and the scholar-officials temporarily restored order and reinforced the authority of the Empress Dowager.

The Crucial Selection of the New Emperor

One of the most pressing issues was the selection of Emperor Huan’s successor. Despite having a large harem, the late emperor left behind only daughters and no clear male heir. The absence of a designated successor gave rise to speculation and suspicion. Some historians have posited that the emperor may have had sons who died under mysterious circumstances or whose existence was concealed or erased by palace intrigues.

Nonetheless, the imperial bloodline included two brothers of the deceased emperor: Prince Liu Kui of Bohai and Prince Liu Shuo of Pingyuan. Traditionally, the heir would be chosen from among the emperor’s close male relatives, usually his sons or nephews.

The Dou family, in consultation with Chen Fan and other officials, turned to the extended royal clan residing in the region corresponding to modern-day Baoding, Hebei Province. They summoned Liu Suo, an imperial relative and supervisor of the imperial guards, who recommended Liu Hong, the Marquis of Jieduting from the Hejian principality. Liu Hong, a boy not yet twelve years old, was the grandson of the emperor’s uncle, making him the emperor’s grand-nephew.

After careful deliberation, Dou Wu and Empress Dowager Dou agreed to enthrone Liu Hong as the new emperor. His youth and distant relation were unusual choices, but the decision proceeded smoothly, likely due to the Dou faction’s political maneuvering and the absence of strong opposition. The selection adhered to an informal principle: the new emperor had to be a male member of the Hejian lineage, between seven and fourteen years old, and of a generation junior to the late emperor.

This principle excluded Liu Kui, who was tied to another principality, and Liu Shuo, who was reportedly dissolute and possibly without suitable heirs. The enthronement of Liu Hong, who became Emperor Ling of Han, marked the beginning of a new imperial chapter, but also set the stage for further power struggles.

The Second Partisan Prohibition: Suppression of Scholar-Officials

The Dou family’s consolidation of power was met with resistance, particularly from eunuchs and rival factions within the court. The scholar-officials, many of whom supported the Dou faction’s Confucian governance ideals, found themselves targeted by the growing influence of corrupt eunuchs who wielded significant control over the palace.

This tension culminated in the Second Partisan Prohibition, a renewed campaign against the so-called “partisans” — scholars and officials who opposed eunuch corruption and advocated for political reforms. The first such prohibition had occurred earlier, but the second was more severe, involving purges, arrests, and executions.

The Dou family’s attempt to eradicate eunuch influence provoked violent backlash. Empress Dowager Dou and Dou Wu were eventually overthrown in a coup orchestrated by powerful eunuchs. This led to a period of heightened repression against the scholar-official class, severely weakening the bureaucracy and exacerbating the dynasty’s decline.

Cultural and Political Impacts

The events surrounding Emperor Huan’s death, Empress Dowager Dou’s regency, and the Second Partisan Prohibition had profound implications for the Han dynasty and Chinese political culture. They highlighted the vulnerabilities of imperial succession without clear heirs, the dangers of court factionalism, and the complex interplay between eunuchs, aristocratic families, and scholar-officials.

The Dou family’s rise and fall underscored the risks inherent in the “queen mother’s family” system, where empress families sought to dominate politics through regencies and alliances. Their failure to maintain power against eunuch factions revealed the shifting balance of influence within the palace.

Moreover, the suppression of the scholar-officials during the Partisan Prohibition weakened the Confucian bureaucracy, contributing to administrative inefficiency and social unrest. This erosion of governance capacity played a role in the eventual collapse of the Eastern Han dynasty and the fragmentation of China into the Three Kingdoms period.

Legacy: Lessons from the Turmoil

The Second Partisan Prohibition and the surrounding events serve as a cautionary tale about the fragility of imperial institutions and the consequences of factional power struggles. Historians view this episode as emblematic of the broader decline of the Han dynasty, where personal ambitions, palace intrigue, and systemic weaknesses converged to destabilize one of China’s greatest imperial houses.

The story of Empress Dowager Dou, her ruthless ambition, and ultimate downfall illustrates the perilous nature of court politics in autocratic regimes. It also reflects the perennial tension between moral governance championed by Confucian scholars and the pragmatic, often ruthless, exercise of power by palace eunuchs and imperial relatives.

In Chinese historical memory, the Partisan Prohibitions are remembered as moments when principled officials were persecuted for opposing corruption, symbolizing the struggle for integrity in governance. These events have continued to resonate in Chinese political thought, underlining the importance of institutional checks and the dangers of unchecked factionalism.

Conclusion

The Second Partisan Prohibition was more than a mere political purge; it was a manifestation of the deep structural problems plaguing the late Eastern Han dynasty. The death of Emperor Huan, the rise of Empress Dowager Dou, the contested succession, and the violent clash between eunuchs and scholar-officials all reflected a dynasty struggling to maintain order amid internal decay.

Understanding this episode offers valuable insights into the dynamics of imperial China, the role of women in power, and the intricate relationship between personal ambition and political stability. As history unfolded, the failures and conflicts of this period set the stage for the dramatic transformations that followed in Chinese history, reminding us of the enduring complexities of governance and power.