The Prelude to a Second Attempt

The First Siege of Kandahar by the Mughal forces had ended in failure, primarily due to a lack of heavy artillery and insufficient supplies. This defeat struck at the core of Mughal imperial pride, compelling them to plan a second, more determined assault. The intervening three years were dedicated to meticulous preparation, reflecting the strategic depth and logistical prowess of the Mughal military machine under Emperor Shah Jahan. The campaign was not merely a military endeavor but a statement of imperial resolve, aimed at reclaiming prestige and securing a vital frontier stronghold.

Kandahar, situated in present-day Afghanistan, held immense strategic importance. It served as a gateway between the Mughal Empire and the Safavid Persia, controlling lucrative trade routes and acting as a buffer against Persian expansion. Its loss to the Safavids in 1649 had been a blow to Mughal authority, and its recapture became a priority. The Mughals, under Shah Jahan, were at the zenith of their power, with vast resources and a highly organized administrative system. However, conquering Kandahar required overcoming formidable geographical and logistical challenges, including arid terrain, great distances, and a well-fortified enemy.

Meticulous Preparations for a Grand Campaign

The Mughals left nothing to chance in their preparations for the second siege. They cast massive cannons, some capable of firing projectiles weighing up to 70 pounds, and assembled 20 smaller caliber guns. Logistics were paramount: grain was stockpiled in warehouses along the planned march route, thousands of camels were requisitioned for transport, and alliances were forged with Baloch chieftains along the Multan route to ensure safe passage and supply. Financial and ammunition reserves were established at the military base in Kabul, underscoring the campaign’s scale and the empire’s commitment.

A key aspect of the preparation was diplomatic outreach. Agents were dispatched to various Baloch tribes, negotiating treaties that promised provisions during the march and siege. This not only secured necessary supplies but also mitigated the risk of tribal hostilities, which could disrupt the campaign. The Mughals understood that success in Kandahar depended as much on local cooperation as on military might. The total cost of these preparations amounted to two crore rupees, a staggering sum that highlighted the campaign’s significance to the empire.

Leadership and Strategic Deployment

Prince Aurangzeb, then governor of Multan, was appointed commander of the expeditionary force. His selection reflected his growing reputation as a capable administrator and military leader. From Multan, he dispatched scouts to survey routes to Kandahar, ultimately selecting the Chachi–Chotiali–Pishin line as the shortest and most feasible path. This decision demonstrated strategic foresight, aiming to reduce march time and conserve resources.

The main army, led by Prime Minister Sadullah Khan, entered Afghanistan via the Khyber Pass, proceeding through Kabul and Ghazni toward Kandahar. Aurangzeb commanded a smaller contingent, including many of his trusted officers and 5,000 soldiers, departing from Multan and taking the western route through Chotiali and Pishin, crossing the Panjmandrak River. The two forces converged near Kandahar on May 2, 1652, marking the beginning of the siege operations. Emperor Shah Jahan himself remained in Kabul with a reserve force of 40,000–50,000 troops, ready to provide support and maintain communication lines with the north.

The Siege Begins: Positions and Initial Maneuvers

On the day of convergence, the siege commenced with precise deployment. Commanders occupied designated positions around the fortress, digging trenches and constructing artillery platforms. Aurangzeb’s forces were stationed west of the fort, behind the Lakah Hill, while his artillery, under Commander Qasim Khan, was positioned to the south with orders to drain the moat. Sadullah Khan’s troops took the southeast, and Rajrup, the prince of Kangra, along with his warriors, faced the “Forty Steps” fortification to the northwest. Four other generals filled the gaps, creating a tight encirclement of Kandahar.

The Mughal army numbered between 50,000 and 60,000 troops, with one-fifth being musketeers and artillerymen. The force included 8 heavy cannons, 20 smaller guns, 20 rotating mounts on elephants, and 100 on camels. Transport was handled by 10 elephants from the imperial stables and 3,000 camels, in addition to those owned by generals. This impressive array of manpower and firepower was intended to overwhelm the defenders through sheer force and persistence.

The Assault on Ketul Hill: A Bold but Flawed Plan

As the siege progressed, sporadic skirmishes occurred, with Mughal forces attempting to capture outer defenses through raids. On the northern front, Mahabat Khan and Rajrup dragged two heavy cannons to the “Forty Steps” and inflicted some damage, but the fortifications proved resilient. Rajrup, whose father had failed in a similar assault during the first siege, grew wary of direct attacks and proposed a surprise assault on the hill behind the “Forty Steps,” near the Ali Qabi gate.

Rajrup’s plan involved using Kangra musketeers, renowned for their climbing skills, to scale the hill under cover of darkness, seize the defenses, and signal for support. Preparations included gathering materials for defensive barricades and coordinating with senior commanders. On the night of June 20, 1652, the operation commenced. Sadullah Khan diverted troops from the right flank to support Rajrup’s left-wing assault, contributing 1,000 of his own men. Aurangzeb added 300 soldiers to the effort.

Critical Errors and the Collapse of the Plan

The success of the night assault hinged on stealth and surprise, but the Mughals faltered. The troops, unaccustomed to covert night movements in hilly terrain, made too much noise during their advance. Compounding this, a dispute arose between Rajrup and an officer named Muzaffar Husain, leading to audible arguments that alerted the defenders. The element of surprise was lost, and the Safavid forces quickly mobilized to repel the attack.

With the moon rising three hours before dawn, any remaining chance of success vanished. Rajrup, positioned halfway up the hill behind a stone barricade, received confused reports: first, that his troops had reached the summit but found the defenders ready; then, falsely, that they had captured the fort. Believing the erroneous report, he ordered trumpets and drums sounded, signaling a general assault. This only compounded the chaos, as returning troops were mistakenly called back into the fray, leading to disarray and heavy casualties.

Aftermath and Legacy of the Second Siege

The failed assault on Ketul Hill marked a turning point in the siege. Despite their numerical and artillery superiority, the Mughals could not breach Kandahar’s defenses. The campaign dragged on, but morale waned, and supplies dwindled. Eventually, the Mughals were forced to withdraw, conceding defeat for the second time. The siege had lasted months, costing significant resources and lives, yet yielding no strategic gain.

The Second Siege of Kandahar underscored the limitations of Mughal military power against well-fortified positions and resilient defenders. It also highlighted logistical challenges in conducting campaigns far from the empire’s heartland. For Aurangzeb, the failure was a personal setback, though it did not diminish his standing; he would later ascend to the throne as emperor. The event also reinforced Safavid control over Kandahar, shaping regional geopolitics for decades.

Cultural and Strategic Reflections

The Kandahar campaigns reflected the Mughal emphasis on imperial prestige and the symbolic importance of territorial control. They also demonstrated the integration of diverse military traditions, from heavy artillery to tribal diplomacy. The use of elephants and camels for transport and combat, the recruitment of specialized troops like the Kangra climbers, and the reliance on local alliances all illustrated the multifaceted nature of Mughal warfare.

Socially, the campaign impacted the regions involved, from the Baloch tribes who gained from Mughal patronage to the communities along the march routes affected by the movement of large armies. The cost of the campaign—two crore rupees—represented a significant investment of imperial resources, reflecting the economic dimensions of Mughal military ambitions.

Modern Relevance and Historical Lessons

The Second Siege of Kandahar offers enduring lessons on the challenges of military campaigns in rugged terrains and the importance of logistics, coordination, and local knowledge. It serves as a case study in the complexities of pre-modern warfare, where technology alone could not guarantee victory. Historians also see it as a precursor to later Mughal struggles in maintaining control over distant frontiers, a issue that would contribute to the empire’s gradual decline.

Today, Kandahar remains a strategically significant region, and the historical sieges remind us of the enduring importance of geography and diplomacy in shaping conflicts. The Mughals’ efforts, though unsuccessful, exemplify the relentless pursuit of power and prestige that characterized one of history’s great empires. Their story continues to resonate, offering insights into the ambitions and limitations of imperial expansion.