Two Empresses and Their Controversial Favorites

The 7th-8th centuries witnessed extraordinary female rulers in East Asia—China’s Wu Zetian (624–705) and Japan’s Empress Shōtoku (称德天皇, 718–770). Both women defied patriarchal norms, wielded absolute power, and surrounded themselves with controversial male favorites who became symbols of their unconventional reigns. The striking parallels between Wu’s relationship with the monk Xue Huaiyi and Shōtoku’s entanglement with the priest Dōkyō reveal fascinating cross-cultural patterns of political intimacy and backlash.

The Rise of Xue Huaiyi: From Street Performer to Imperial Consort

Wu Zetian’s path to power was paved with calculated alliances, and none proved more sensational than her relationship with Xue Huaiyi. Originally a street performer known for his physical strength and imposing stature, Xue caught the empress’s attention in the 680s. Wu, then in her 60s, orchestrated his ordination as a Buddhist monk to legitimize his presence at court—a clever maneuver that masked their intimate relationship behind religious sanctity.

Xue’s rapid ascent epitomized Wu’s disruption of Tang hierarchy:
– Appointed abbot of the prestigious White Horse Monastery
– Oversaw construction of the 294-foot Mingtang cosmic temple
– Commissioned the politically charged Great Cloud Sutra justifying female rule
– Granted military titles including General of the Right Guard

Contemporary records describe Xue leading violent processions through Luoyang, his guards flogging citizens who failed to prostrate. The Zizhi Tongjian recounts one chilling episode: “When Xue Huaiyi’s retinue approached, market crowds would scatter screaming, ‘The Master comes! Flee for your lives!'”

Dōkyō’s Ascent: Japan’s Monastic Power Broker

Eight decades later in Japan, Empress Shōtoku elevated the monk Dōkyō through strikingly similar patterns. Like Xue, Dōkyō combined religious authority with political ambition:

– Rose from the obscure Yuge clan to become Chancellor (Daijō-daijin)
– Claimed divine sanction through oracles from Usa Hachiman Shrine
– Attempted to establish himself as imperial successor—unprecedented for a monk
– Inspired the Shoku Nihongi to record his “holy” status

The Nara court’s reaction mirrored Tang responses to Xue. When courtier Wake no Kiyomaro challenged Dōkyō’s legitimacy, the empress exiled him under the humiliating new name “Kitabe no Makaru” (Filthy One)—echoing Wu’s practice of punitive renaming (e.g., changing rival clans’ surnames to “Python” and “Owl”).

Architectural Legacies: From Luoyang to Nara

Both empresses left monumental Buddhist constructions that fused spiritual and political messaging:

Wu Zetian’s Projects
– The 17-meter Vairocana Buddha at Longmen Grottoes, said to bear her likeness
– The Mingtang complex with its 90-meter central pagoda
– The short-lived “Heavenly Hall” destroyed by Xue’s arson

Shōtoku’s Enduring Mark
– The Great Buddha of Tōdai-ji (completed 752), matching Luoyang’s colossus in scale
– Provincial Kokubunji temple network mirroring Wu’s Dayun Monastery system
– Shigaraki Palace’s mysterious construction amid succession disputes

Scholar Tominaga Nakamoto first noted in 1787 how these projects created “Buddhist mandalas of power”—physical manifestations of female sovereigns’ authority.

The Violent Downfall of Imperial Favorites

Both favorites met brutal ends when their utility expired:

Xue Huaiyi’s Demise (695 CE)
After burning the Mingtang in a jealous rage (Wu had taken physician Shen Nanqiu as new lover), Xue was:
1. Accused of rebellion by Princess Taiping’s wet nurse
2. Ambushed at Yao Guang Temple
3. Beaten to death by palace guards

Dōkyō’s Fall (770 CE)
Following Shōtoku’s death, the monk was:
1. Stripped of all titles
2. Exiled to Shimotsuke Province
3. Erased from official portraits at Tōdai-ji

The Shoku Nihongi tersely records: “The monk Dōkyō was sent away, and the sun shone again upon the land.”

Cultural Reverberations Across East Asia

These episodes shaped regional political culture:

1. Naming as Power
Both rulers weaponized onomastics—Wu renamed enemies after vermin, while Shōtoku dubbed critics “Filthy One” and “Narrow Insect.”

2. Four-Character Era Names
Wu’s “Celestial Accord Eternal” (天册万岁) inspired Japan’s “Divine Protection Auspicious Cloud” (神护景云).

3. Gender Subversion Tropes
The Nihon Ryōiki (822) contains coded critiques of female rule through allegorical tales.

4. Artistic Propaganda
The Longmen and Tōdai-ji Buddhas created enduring visual paradigms of female sovereignty.

Modern Historical Reckoning

Contemporary scholars debate these parallels:

– Nationalist School: Views similarities as coincidental (Tsuda Sōkichi, 1949)
– Feminist Readings: Highlights institutional barriers female rulers overcame (Rubenstein, 1999)
– Transnational Approach: Stresses shared Buddhist political vocabulary (Wang, 2012)

The 1960 discovery of Princess Yongtai’s tomb—with murals resembling Japan’s Takamatsuzuka frescoes—reignited interest in these cultural exchanges. As historian Joan Piggott notes: “The Nara court didn’t just import Tang legal codes; they absorbed its political theater, including the dangerous dance between empresses and their favorites.”

These stories endure as cautionary tales about power, gender, and the fragility of imperial favor—themes that continue to resonate in East Asian political discourse today.