The Birth of Chu: From Tribal Name to Regional Power

The story of Chu begins not as a geographical entity, but as a tribal identifier rooted in botanical symbolism. According to the renowned Tsinghua Bamboo Slips text “Chu Ju,” the name originated from a poignant origin myth involving the birth of tribal leader Xiong Li. When his mother, Bi Li, died during childbirth, shamans wrapped her abdomen with chu (vitex branches) for burial, transforming this humble plant into an enduring symbol of identity.

From these mythic beginnings in the Dan Yang region, the Chu people gradually expanded their territory during the Spring and Autumn period (771-476 BCE), establishing their dominance over the lands north of the Yangtze in modern Hubei province. What began as a fifty-li territory grew into a formidable regional power, with “Chu” evolving from tribal designation to geographical marker.

The Chu Hegemony: A Southern Superpower Emerges

The Warring States period (475-221 BCE) witnessed Chu’s dramatic territorial expansion following the fragmentation of its northern rival, the Jin state. Historical records from the Huainanzi describe Chu’s unprecedented growth:

“Chu territory stretched south to the Yuan and Xiang rivers, north encircling the Ying and Si rivers, west encompassing Ba and Shu, east wrapping around Tan and Pi.”

This expansion transformed Chu into the dominant power across southern China, controlling vast swaths of land that would later become six modern provinces (Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang), plus portions of Henan and Shandong. The 306 BCE conquest of Yue kingdom extended Chu’s reach to the Zhe River, incorporating former Wu-Yue territories south of the Yangtze.

The Three Chus of Han Dynasty Geography

The Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) inherited this vast Chu legacy, which scholars divided into three distinct cultural regions:

Western Chu (Xi Chu): Encompassing modern northern Hubei, eastern Henan, and northern Jiangsu/Anhui. The Records of the Grand Historian describes its people as “quick to anger” in a land with “thin soil and little accumulation.”

Eastern Chu (Dong Chu): Covering central Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang, including the cultural and economic hub of Yangzhou.

Southern Chu (Nan Chu): Spanning Jiangxi and Hunan, characterized by eloquent speech but questionable reliability, with the historian noting the region’s “damp climate where men die young” amidst abundant bamboo.

This tripartite division became standard geographical knowledge during early Han, reflecting Chu’s enduring cultural influence across southern China.

The Warrior Legacy: Chu’s Military Prowess in the Six Dynasties

During the tumultuous Six Dynasties period (220-589 CE), the Western Chu region (centered on modern Xuzhou) became renowned for producing formidable military leaders. The area’s frontier position between northern and southern regimes fostered a distinct warrior culture, with local militias organized in defensive fortresses (wubao).

The most famous product of this environment was the elite Beifu Army, whose officer corps hailed exclusively from Western Chu cities like Pengcheng and Donghai. Northern Wei historians consistently identified southern dynastic founders as “Chu people,” including:

– Liu Yu (Song dynasty founder): Native of Pengcheng
– Xiao Daocheng (Qi dynasty founder): From Jinling’s Wujin Chu community
– Xiao Yan (Liang dynasty founder): Also of Jinling Wujin Chu heritage

This military tradition gradually faded after the Hou Jing Rebellion (548-552 CE), as political power shifted to the Guanlong aristocratic bloc during Sui and Tang dynasties.

The Great Contraction: Chu’s Regional Focus Shifts to Hunan-Hubei

By the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE), “Chu” had largely shed its associations with eastern regions, becoming concentrated in the Hunan-Hubei heartland. Geographic factors facilitated this transition:

– The absence of natural barriers between Hunan and Hubei
– Complementary river systems (Yangtze and its tributaries)
– Shared agricultural patterns in the Jianghan and Xiang River plains

The An Lushan Rebellion (755-763 CE) accelerated this process, as northern refugees flooded into Hunan via the Xiang River corridor. In 764, the Tang court established the Hunan Observation Circuit, marking the first official use of “Hunan” as an administrative designation.

The Lake Divides: Administrative Separation Begins

During the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE), the expanding Dongting Lake became both physical and symbolic boundary between:

– Jinghu North Circuit (Hubei)
– Jinghu South Circuit (Hunan)

Though nominally united under “Jinghu” (Lake Circuits), the growing lake complex (merging Dongting, Qingcao, and Chisha lakes) created a natural division. Northern Song poet Lü Benzhong captured its scale:

“Dongting Lake in autumn shines clear and bright,
Spanning eight hundred li under moonlit night.”

Yuan to Ming: The Rise of “Huguang” and “Chu Province”

The Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) created the massive Huguang Province, administering modern Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, and parts of Guangdong/Guizhou. Strategic considerations drove the provincial capital to Wuchang (modern Wuhan):

– Decline of former capital Jiangling (Jingzhou) due to Yangtze flooding
– Wuchang’s superior location at Han-Yangtze confluence
– Growing economic importance of eastern Huguang

Ming dynasty (1368-1644) administrators creatively linked their 15 provinces to Zhou dynasty states, officially designating Huguang as “Chu Province.” The 14th-century astronomical text Da Ming Qing Lei Tian Wen Fen Ye Zhi Shu defined this Chu as stretching from Baidi eastward to Poyang Lake, and from the southern mountains to Yulin and Hepu.

The “Huguang Harvest” and Inevitable Partition

Ming economic records highlight Huguang’s agricultural dominance, with proverbs declaring:

“When Huguang’s harvest is ripe, the empire has enough.”

By late Ming, specific regions emerged:

– Hubei: “When Hubei is ripe, Huguang has enough”
– Hunan: “When Hunan is ripe, the empire has enough”

This economic divergence, combined with Hunan’s growing population (Changsha prefecture recorded 509,000 residents in 1391), made administrative separation inevitable.

Qing Dynasty Division: The Birth of Hunan and Hubei

The formal split occurred in 1664 under Emperor Kangxi, driven by:

1. Military concerns: Need to counter Wu Sangui’s power in Yunnan/Guizhou
2. Administrative efficiency: Managing Hunan’s growing population and economy
3. Frontier governance: Expanded tusi (native chieftain) reforms in western Hunan

Despite political division, cultural unity persisted through shared “Chu” identity. 18th-century officials still used hybrid terms:

– “Chu-E” (Chu-Hubei) for Hubei natives
– “Chu-Xiang” (Chu-Hunan) for Hunanese

Modern Transition: From “Chu” to Provincial Identities

The mid-19th century marked the definitive shift to modern provincial identities:

Hubei’s Transition:
– 1854: Xianfeng Emperor’s edict first uses “E Province” officially
– Gradual adoption of “E” (from Ezhou/Wuchang) as standard abbreviation

Hunan’s Evolution:
– Early 1800s: Temporary claim to “Chu” identity after Hubei’s shift
– 1850s: Rise of Xiang Army under Zeng Guofani
– Late Qing: Cultural renaissance through reform movements (1890s)
– 1903: Yang Du’s “Hunan Youth Song” crystallizes provincial pride

The Xiang Army’s military successes (defeating Taiping Rebels, reclaiming Xinjiang) and Hunan’s intellectual leadership during the Hundred Days’ Reform cemented “Xiang” as the dominant identity marker, completing the centuries-long process of regional differentiation within the ancient Chu lands.

Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of Chu

Though modern Hunan and Hubei have developed distinct identities, their shared Chu heritage continues to influence culture, language, and regional consciousness. From the warrior ethos of the Beifu Army to the agricultural wealth celebrated in Ming proverbs, the Chu legacy remains embedded in central China’s historical DNA. The evolution from tribal name to regional superpower, through administrative divisions and into modern provincial identities, reflects the dynamic interplay between geography, politics, and culture in Chinese history.