Introduction: A Land Bridge Through Time

The relationship between Taiwan and mainland China represents one of Asia’s most complex and enduring geopolitical stories, rooted in deep geological history and centuries of cultural exchange. This island territory, located approximately 180 kilometers off China’s southeastern coast, has experienced countless transformations—both natural and political—that have shaped its unique identity while maintaining fundamental connections to the continental mainland. The story of Taiwan is not merely one of colonial conquests and political struggles, but of land masses rising and falling with ice ages, of ancient migrations across exposed sea floors, and of cultural continuity despite geographical separation.

Geological Foundations: When Taiwan Was Connected to Mainland China

The very formation of Taiwan Strait tells a dramatic story of climatic transformation. Approximately 10,000 years ago, as the last ice age concluded, global temperatures rose significantly, causing sea levels to increase dramatically. This warming climate submerged the low-lying valley that once connected Fujian province to Taiwan, creating the waterway we now know as the Taiwan Strait. This geological process was not unique to the most recent ice age—throughout the Quaternary period, which began approximately 2.6 million years ago, the Earth experienced four major glacial periods.

During each ice age, enormous volumes of water became trapped in continental ice sheets, causing global sea levels to drop substantially. Each time this occurred, the Taiwan Strait would emerge from the sea, creating a land connection between Taiwan and mainland China. When interglacial periods arrived and temperatures warmed, the ice would melt and sea levels would rise, submerging the connection once again. This cyclical pattern of connection and separation occurred multiple times throughout prehistoric periods, creating what geologists sometimes call the “Dongshan Land Bridge”—a periodic pathway for movement between the continental mainland and the island of Taiwan.

Archaeological Evidence: Cultural Connections Across the Strait

The geological connection between Taiwan and mainland China facilitated early human migration and cultural exchange. Ancient peoples could walk across the exposed land bridge during periods of lower sea levels, maintaining continuous contact between the two regions. This movement left behind compelling archaeological evidence that demonstrates the shared cultural heritage between Taiwan and mainland China.

Excavations throughout Taiwan have uncovered pottery, ceramics, and other artifacts that display striking similarities to those found in archaeological sites across southeastern China. The techniques, designs, and materials used in these creations belong to identical cultural and manufacturing traditions, indicating not just occasional contact but sustained cultural exchange and shared development. These archaeological findings provide tangible proof that despite the periodic separation by water, the inhabitants of Taiwan and mainland China maintained strong cultural and technological connections throughout prehistoric times.

Evolving Nomenclature: What’s in a Name?

The various names used to refer to Taiwan throughout history reflect the evolving understanding and relationship between the island and mainland Chinese administrations. During the Qin and Han dynasties also appeared in early historical texts, suggesting recognition of the island’s separate status while maintaining its connection to the Chinese cultural sphere.

During the Sui and Tang dynasties that the name “Taiwan” first appeared in official documents, marking the beginning of the nomenclature that would eventually become standard. This evolution in naming reflects the growing familiarity and increasing administrative attention that Chinese dynasties paid to the island over time.

Early Historical Contacts: Military Expeditions and Administrative Presence

The first recorded large-scale military expedition from mainland China to Taiwan occurred in the year 230 CE, during the Three Kingdoms period. The warlord Sun Quan, ruler of the Eastern Wu kingdom, dispatched generals Wei Wen and Zhuge Zhi with a fleet carrying approximately ten thousand naval troops to cross the strait and reach Taiwan. This expedition represents the earliest documented instance of organized mainland Chinese forces reaching the island, establishing a precedent for future interactions.

Several centuries later, during the Sui Dynasty , Emperor Yang dispatched military forces to Taiwan on three separate occasions. These expeditions demonstrated the continuing interest of mainland Chinese rulers in the island territory and established patterns of cross-strait interaction that would continue for centuries. Throughout subsequent dynasties, military personnel and traders moved regularly between mainland China and Taiwan, maintaining commercial and strategic connections.

The Yuan Dynasty marked an important administrative development in the relationship between mainland China and Taiwan. To strengthen management and oversight of the island territory, the Yuan government established a Patrol and Inspection Office in the Penghu Islands. This administrative body exercised jurisdiction over civil affairs in both Penghu and Taiwan, representing the first formal bureaucratic structure through which a mainland Chinese government administered Taiwan.

During the Ming Dynasty disturbances. These military installations served both defensive purposes and as symbols of Ming authority in the region, further strengthening the administrative and military connections between mainland China and Taiwan.

European Intrusion: Colonial Ambitions in the Far East

The 16th century witnessed the arrival of European colonial powers in East Asia, dramatically altering the geopolitical landscape. Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands, driven by mercantile ambitions and colonial expansion, began establishing footholds throughout the region. Taiwan’s strategic location along important trade routes made it an attractive target for these European powers.

In the early 17th century, Spanish forces briefly established a colonial presence in northern Taiwan, building settlements and fortifications. Their control proved short-lived, however, as Dutch forces soon arrived and expelled the Spanish from the island. The Dutch East India Company then established colonial administration over Taiwan, using Tainan and Penghu as their primary bases of operation. For approximately thirty-eight years, from 1624 to 1662, the Dutch maintained control over parts of Taiwan, implementing systems of governance, trade, and taxation.

Dutch colonial rule represented the first time that Taiwan came under sustained administration by a non-Chinese power. The Dutch established plantations, encouraged immigration from mainland China to develop agricultural production, and built fortifications throughout their territories. Their administration left lasting impacts on Taiwan’s development, particularly in southern regions where their presence was most concentrated.

Zheng Chenggong’s Campaign: The Ming Loyalist Recovery of Taiwan

The year 1661 marked a pivotal moment in Taiwan’s history—the arrival of Zheng Chenggong , a Ming loyalist commander who sought to establish a base of operations against the newly established Qing Dynasty. Leading a fleet of hundreds of warships and approximately 25,000 soldiers from Kinmen, Zheng proceeded through the Penghu Islands before launching his assault on Dutch positions in Taiwan.

After a nine-month siege, Zheng’s forces successfully compelled the Dutch surrender, ending European colonial rule on the island. Zheng renamed the Dutch headquarters at Fort Zeelandia as “Eastern Capital Ming京,” establishing it as his administrative center. He created Chengtian Prefecture in the Tainan region and established two counties—Tianxing and Wannian—though effective control remained limited primarily to southern Taiwan, as the northern parts of the island remained largely undeveloped at this time.

Zheng’s victory represented the first time that a Chinese military force had expelled a European colonial power from Asian territory, establishing an important precedent in the history of colonial resistance. His administration sought to implement Ming-style governance while developing Taiwan’s agricultural potential to support his military forces.

The Zheng Dynasty: A Rump State in Exile

Following Zheng Chenggong’s untimely death in 1662, just one year after capturing Taiwan, leadership passed to his son Zheng Jing. The younger Zheng inherited the title of Prince of Yanping and continued to administer Taiwan as a Ming loyalist regime—the last remaining territory that officially recognized the Ming Dynasty rather than the Qing Dynasty that now controlled mainland China.

Zheng Jing initially attempted to expand his influence beyond Taiwan, briefly capturing territories in Fujian and Guangdong provinces. When these campaigns failed, his forces retreated to Taiwan and Penghu, abandoning their former strongholds of Kinmen and Xiamen. This contraction marked a turning point in the Zheng regime’s ambitions—from actively seeking to restore Ming rule throughout China to maintaining a smaller, separate administration on Taiwan.

The Qing government attempted to negotiate with Zheng Jing on nine separate occasions, seeking a peaceful resolution to what they viewed as a rebellious holdout territory. These negotiations ultimately failed, as Zheng Jing—lacking his father’s commitment to restoring Ming rule across China—preferred to maintain his autonomous administration on Taiwan rather than submit to Qing authority.

Qing Responses: Military Campaigns and Coastal Policies

The continued existence of the Zheng regime on Taiwan represented both a ideological challenge and strategic concern for the Qing government. Emperor Kangxi viewed the independent administration as an unacceptable defiance of Qing authority, but the geographical barrier of the Taiwan Strait complicated military options.

In April 1665, the Qing government launched a naval expedition against Penghu, hoping to establish a foothold for further operations against Taiwan. This campaign ended in failure when the fleet encountered a typhoon, forcing a retreat. This setback demonstrated the logistical challenges of mounting a cross-strait invasion and temporarily delayed Qing plans for military action against the Zheng administration.

Frustrated by military difficulties, the Qing government implemented a series of coastal policies designed to isolate and weaken the Zheng regime. In June 1656, the Shunzhi Emperor had already issued a “Coastal Prohibition” order that banned all private maritime trade along China’s eastern coastline. Violators faced severe penalties, including execution. This policy aimed to cut off supplies and resources from reaching the Zheng forces on Taiwan.

When these measures proved insufficient, the Qing government adopted a more extreme approach proposed by Huang Wu, a former subordinate of Zheng Chenggong who had defected to the Qing. This new policy, known as the “Coastal Evacuation” order, forced residents of six provinces—Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Shandong, and Zhili —to relocate inland by distances of 15 to 25 kilometers from the coast. The vacated areas became designated uninhabited zones where all buildings were destroyed and entry was prohibited under penalty of death.

Human Cost: The Devastating Impact of Coastal Policies

The Coastal Prohibition and Coastal Evacuation policies had catastrophic consequences for China’s coastal populations. Millions of people were forcibly removed from their homes and livelihoods, creating a humanitarian crisis of enormous scale. Fishing communities, salt production facilities, and maritime trading networks—once prosperous economic engines—were completely abandoned and destroyed.

The economic impact extended far beyond the immediate coastal regions, as China’s traditionally robust maritime trade networks were severely disrupted. The policies created widespread poverty and displacement, with many coastal residents struggling to adapt to unfamiliar inland environments and livelihoods. The social and economic devastation caused by these policies would take generations to fully recover from, even after the restrictions were eventually lifted.

For the Qing government, these extreme measures represented a strategic calculation—the economic and human costs were deemed necessary to address what they perceived as the greater threat of the Zheng administration on Taiwan. The policies reflected the seriousness with which the Qing leadership viewed the challenge to their authority and their determination to eliminate any rival claims to legitimacy.

The Final Chapter: Qing Consolidation and Beyond

The year 1681 marked a turning point in the struggle between the Qing government and the Zheng administration. With the suppression of the Revolt of the Three Feudatories on mainland China, the Qing government could focus its military resources on resolving the Taiwan question once and for all. The stage was set for the final confrontation that would determine Taiwan’s political future.

The complex geological history that periodically connected and separated Taiwan from mainland China finds its parallel in the political history that has alternately joined and divided the two territories. From ancient migrations across exposed land bridges to naval expeditions across the formed strait, from shared cultural traditions to periods of separate administration, the relationship between Taiwan and mainland China has been characterized by both connection and separation—a dynamic that continues to shape their interaction into the modern era.

The story of Taiwan’s relationship with mainland China is ultimately one of endurance—of geological formations surviving climatic transformations, of cultural traditions persisting through political changes, and of a connection that has weathered countless challenges throughout history. This enduring relationship, forged through millennia of geological and historical development, continues to influence the present and future of both Taiwan and mainland China.