The Fractured Landscape of Yuan Dynasty China

As wild geese returned northward in the spring of 1363, China stood fractured amid the collapse of Yuan Dynasty authority. The once-mighty Mongol rulers now faced coordinated rebellions from rival warlords who had carved the Yangtze Delta into competing spheres of influence. This turbulent period saw three major contenders emerge: Zhu Yuanzhang from Nanjing, Chen Youliang of the Han regime, and Zhang Shicheng, the self-styled King of Wu based in Suzhou.

The Red Turban Rebellion’s initial leader, Liu Futong, had become a tragic figure by this time. Once commanding vast revolutionary armies against the Yuan, he now found himself besieged in Anfeng (modern Shou County, Anhui) with the nominal Song emperor Han Lin’er. His single-minded focus on toppling the Mongols had allowed opportunistic warlords like Zhang Shicheng to expand unchecked.

Zhang Shicheng’s Ascent: From Salt Merchant to Regional Power

Zhang’s rise from humble salt smuggler to Suzhou-based ruler reads like a medieval rags-to-riches tale. His 1354 victory at Gaoyou against Yuan forces cemented his reputation, attracting both peasant fighters and disillusioned scholars. Unlike traditional Confucian rulers, Zhang governed with pragmatic populism:

– Abolished oppressive Yuan taxes, fueling economic revival in Jiangnan’s fertile lands
– Established state-funded schools, attracting literati including future Water Margin authors Shi Nai’an and Luo Guanzhong
– Maintained lavish courts that blended folk culture with imperial pretensions, commissioning extravagant dragon boats that became legendary

Contemporary accounts describe commoners affectionately calling him “Brother Ninety-Four” (a pun on his childhood name), with locals continuing secret commemorations even after Zhu Yuanzhang’s eventual victory.

The Anfeng Crisis: A Strategic Gambit

In February 1363, Zhang made his boldest move yet – ordering chancellor Lü Zhen to besiege Anfeng. This seemingly minor fortress held immense symbolic value as Liu Futong and Han Lin’er’s last refuge. For Zhu Yuanzhang, the attack presented a dilemma:

Strategic Considerations:
– Rescuing the Red Turban leaders risked overextending his forces
– Abandoning them might damage his anti-Yuan legitimacy
– Allowing Zhang to eliminate his rivals could make the Suzhou regime unstoppable

When advisor Liu Bowen returned from campaign, Zhu immediately tasked him with solving this geopolitical puzzle. The decision would shape the balance of power in southern China.

Clash of Philosophies: Zhang’s Unorthodox Rule

Zhang’s governance defied Confucian norms in ways that fascinated and horrified contemporaries:

“Should I wear patched trousers when I can afford silk?” he famously challenged scholar Shi Nai’an. This utilitarian philosophy extended to his military – while investing heavily in Suzhou’s defenses (including concentric walls and moon-shaped barbicans), he maintained an opulent lifestyle that traditionalists deemed decadent.

His 1356 occupation of Pingjiang (renamed Longping) demonstrated both administrative skill and strategic blindness. While developing robust civil institutions, he fatally underestimated Zhu’s growing threat from the west.

The Zhu-Zhang Rivalry Escalates

Initial skirmishes revealed their contrasting styles:

1356-57 Campaigns
– Dragon Pond Naval Battle: Zhang’s untested fleet humiliated by Xu Da
– Changzhou Campaign: Zhu’s feigned siege lured Zhang into costly relief attempts
– Jiangyin Capture: Severed Zhang’s naval access up the Yangtze

The 1357 capture of Zhang’s brilliant brother Shide proved catastrophic. Though Zhang later negotiated a Yuan alliance (becoming “Grand Marshal” in 1358), the damage was irreversible.

Legacy of the Anfeng Decision

Zhu’s choice to relieve Anfeng in 1363 – despite Liu Bowen’s reservations – marked a turning point:

1. It preserved his revolutionary credentials while eliminating the Red Turban leadership
2. Drained resources needed for the decisive showdown with Chen Youliang at Lake Poyang
3. Demonstrated Zhang’s strategic limitations despite material advantages

Within two years, Zhu would turn his full attention to Suzhou, culminating in Zhang’s 1367 defeat and suicide. The Anfeng campaign thus served as prelude to the Ming Dynasty’s founding.

Modern historians debate Zhang’s complex legacy – was he a pragmatic reformer ahead of his time, or merely a warlord whose populism couldn’t compensate for military shortcomings? What remains undeniable is how this salt merchant turned king embodied the social mobility and cultural dynamism of China’s late medieval upheaval.