The Strategic Jewel of the Yangtze

Nestled along the northern bank of the Yangtze River, the walled city of Anqing stood as one of imperial China’s most formidable fortresses during the mid-19th century. Spanning over 2.5 square kilometers, its massive 1.6-kilometer-long brick walls with crenellated battlements dominated the surrounding landscape from an elevated position. The city’s military advantages were numerous: clear sightlines from its sloping approaches, natural barriers formed by the Yangtze’s sharp northern bend, and adjacent lakes that created a virtual island accessible only through the heavily fortified Jixian Pass to the north.

Anqing’s strategic importance stemmed from its control of critical transportation routes. The Yangtze here narrowed to just 800 meters, with deep-water channels running alarmingly close to the northern shore – so near that passing ship captains could reportedly peer into the barrels of the city’s cannons. This choke point allowed Anqing’s defenders to sever supply lines for any force attempting to bypass it along the river. For the Taiping rebels who had held the city since 1853, Anqing served as the western anchor of their territory and gateway to their capital at Nanjing. For Qing forces under Zeng Guofan, capturing Anqing became the essential first step in any campaign to reclaim the Yangtze valley.

The Gathering Storm: 1860 Campaign Preparations

By summer 1860, the strategic chessboard was set for one of the Taiping Civil War’s most consequential campaigns. Twenty-five-year-old Taiping general Chen Yucheng, known as the “Four-Eyed Dog” for distinctive facial markings, had left Anqing lightly defended with 20,000 inexperienced troops while taking his main force east to relieve Nanjing. Seizing this opportunity, Zeng Guofan dispatched his brother Zeng Guoquan with 10,000 Hunan Army troops to besiege the city.

The defenders, following Chen’s orders to hold the walls but avoid open battle, allowed Zeng Guoquan’s forces to establish siege positions remarkably close to the city walls. Inside Anqing, Taiping forces had transformed much of the urban space into a military encampment, demolishing inner structures for materials while maintaining orderly living quarters and extensive vegetable gardens to sustain the population. The stage was set for a prolonged siege that would test both sides’ endurance and strategic creativity.

The Taiping Counteroffensive: A Bold Strategic Gambit

Taiping leadership initially showed little concern about Anqing’s encirclement, confident in its strong defenses and numerical superiority. Their strategic response, masterminded by Hong Rengan, envisioned a sweeping pincer movement to reclaim the entire Yangtze valley west of Nanjing. The ambitious plan called for:

1. Chen Yucheng to march west along the Yangtze’s northern bank with 100,000 troops, relieving Anqing before proceeding to Hankow
2. Li Xiucheng to advance parallel along the southern bank, attacking Zeng Guofan’s headquarters at Qimen
3. Both forces converging at Wuchang in spring 1861 to isolate and destroy Qing forces

This grand strategy reflected Hong Rengan’s vision of consolidating Taiping control eastward before turning westward – a plan now entering its second phase. However, the failure to acquire steamships from foreigners after the August 1860 Shanghai setback forced modification to land-based movements.

The Campaign Unfolds: Triumphs and Reversals

Chen Yucheng’s initial October 1860 advance met fierce resistance from Qing cavalry under Duolong’a near Tongcheng, forcing winter quarters. In March 1861, he executed a brilliant flanking maneuver, covering 300 km in 11 days to capture Huangzhou, just 80 km from Wuchang. This positioned him perfectly to strike at Hankow, but British diplomat Harry Parkes’ intervention proved decisive.

Parkes’ March 22 meeting with Chen at Huangzhou included veiled threats about protecting British commercial interests at Hankow. This diplomatic pressure, combined with delayed communications to Nanjing, created fatal hesitation. As Chen waited for instructions, Qing forces reinforced Wuchang, negating his hard-won advantage.

Meanwhile, Li Xiucheng’s southern advance became mired in江西’s river crossings and local recruitment. His eventual arrival at Wuchang in June 1861 – two months late with 300,000 raw recruits – found no sign of Chen’s forces. Facing well-prepared defenses and approaching Qing troops, Li withdrew eastward, abandoning the campaign’s strategic objective.

The Siege Tightens: Desperation and Diplomacy

Back at Anqing, the siege entered its critical phase by summer 1861. Zeng Guoquan’s encircling earthworks had transformed into a veritable second fortress around the city, while naval patrols attempted to blockade the Yangtze. Yet foreign steamships continued supplying the defenders until British authorities, responding to Qing protests, finally prohibited this trade in late July.

Inside Anqing, conditions grew increasingly dire. Rations dwindled after the July loss of the Linghu lake supply route, forcing defenders to consume all animals and eventually resort to unthinkable measures. The besiegers faced their own challenges – unpaid troops for nine months, necessitating unofficial markets with the besieged that highlighted the civil war’s tragic irony: Hunanese on both sides, separated only by political allegiance.

The Final Act: Blood and Fire

Chen Yucheng’s last desperate attempt to relieve Anqing came in August 1861. After failing to break through at Tongcheng, he led his remaining forces on a 300 km flanking march to attack from the south. The resulting seven-day battle at Jixian Pass reached apocalyptic intensity, with Taiping forces assaulting Zeng Guoquan’s trenches in human waves. The final night of September 13 saw a massive conflagration as Chen burned his positions and withdrew, abandoning Anqing to its fate.

When Qing forces entered on September 5, they encountered a city reduced to cannibalism. The subsequent massacre – whether of 8,000 surrendered troops or up to 16,000 civilians – remains one of the war’s most controversial episodes. Zeng Guofan’s letters to his brother reveal the cold calculus behind these actions, justifying extreme measures as military necessity.

Legacy of a Pivotal Struggle

The fall of Anqing marked the beginning of the Taiping Rebellion’s final decline. Without this critical Yangtze stronghold, Taiping forces lost their western anchor and ability to project power upriver. For the Qing, Anqing’s capture provided the springboard for Zeng Guofan’s eventual advance on Nanjing in 1864.

The campaign’s complex interplay of military strategy, foreign diplomacy, and human endurance offers profound insights into:
– The evolving nature of 19th century warfare in China
– The growing influence of foreign powers in domestic conflicts
– The brutal realities of civil war that transcended simple loyalties

Anqing’s story remains etched in China’s historical consciousness – a testament to how single cities can shape empires’ fates, and how warfare’s human cost often lingers long after strategic objectives fade from memory.