The Backdrop of a Shifting Empire

The year was 1369, the second year of the Hongwu Emperor’s reign. The newly established Ming Dynasty was still consolidating its power after overthrowing the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The remnants of Yuan forces, led by the formidable general Köke Temür (known in Chinese as Wang Baobao), remained a persistent threat in the northwest. Lanzhou, a strategic city along the Silk Road, became the stage for a dramatic siege that would test the resolve of both Ming defenders and Yuan loyalists.

Köke Temür, a master tactician and one of the last great Yuan commanders, saw an opportunity as Ming forces withdrew southward. With an army reportedly numbering 100,000, he advanced from Ganzhou and Suzhou (modern Zhangye and Jiuquan) toward Lanzhou. The city’s defense rested on the shoulders of Ming commander Zhang Wen, whose forces were vastly outnumbered but determined to hold their ground.

The Siege Begins: Bold Moves and Desperate Gambits

Zhang Wen faced a dire situation. His scouts confirmed Köke Temür’s overwhelming numbers, and conventional defense seemed futile. Instead of waiting passively, he devised a daring plan: a preemptive strike. Under the cover of dusk, Zhang led his troops outside the city walls, catching the Yuan vanguard off guard. The Ming forces burned the Yuan army’s hastily assembled siege materials before retreating safely—a psychological blow that forced Köke Temür to reconsider his approach.

The Yuan commander, initially dismissive of Lanzhou’s defenses, now faced an unexpected challenge. Zhang Wen’s audacity suggested either hidden reserves or a commander unafraid of death. Köke Temür, ever the strategist, adjusted his tactics. He implemented a three-pronged strategy:

1. Hearts and Minds Campaign – Unusual for Yuan forces, Köke Temür ordered strict discipline, forbidding looting and promising land and provisions to locals. This won temporary cooperation from some civilians.
2. Night Assault – A 5,000-strong elite force attempted a nighttime escalade of Lanzhou’s walls, only to be repelled by prepared defenders who gruesomely executed captured soldiers to demoralize future attackers.
3. Encircling Fortifications – The Yuan army dug multiple trenches and erected earthworks (later called “Wang Baobao’s Forts”) to isolate Lanzhou completely.

The Failed Relief: Tragedy at Malantan

Lanzhou’s hope rested on reinforcements. The nearest Ming garrison, led by General Yu Guang in Gongchang (modern Longxi), responded immediately. Despite knowing his 3,000 troops stood little chance against Köke Temür’s army, Yu marched westward, aiming to bolster morale rather than break the siege.

His force walked into a trap at Malantan. Ambushed from all sides, Yu’s men fought desperately but were annihilated. Captured and dragged before Lanzhou’s walls, Yu Guang was ordered to demand the city’s surrender. Instead, he shouted defiantly: “General Xu Da’s reinforcements are coming! Hold fast!” Beaten and executed on the spot, his martyrdom galvanized Lanzhou’s defenders.

Cultural Echoes and Psychological Warfare

The siege revealed fascinating socio-military dynamics:

– Propaganda and Counter-Propaganda – Köke Temür’s rare policy of restraint temporarily swayed civilians, but his later reversal—burning villages and seizing supplies—exposed the Yuan’s fragile trust with locals.
– The Psychology of Sieges – Zhang Wen’s leadership exemplified how defiance could offset numerical inferiority. His troops’ willingness to fight to the last contrasted sharply with Köke Temür’s reliance on attrition.
– Heroism and Sacrifice – Yu Guang’s last stand became legendary, earning him posthumous honors in Ming shrines. His actions underscored the era’s emphasis on loyalty over tactical pragmatism.

Legacy: A Turning Point in the Northwest

Though Köke Temür failed to take Lanzhou, the siege had lasting repercussions:

1. Strategic Stalemate – The Yuan withdrawal marked the end of large-scale attempts to retake the Hexi Corridor, confining Mongol forces to the steppes.
2. Ming Fortification Policies – Lanzhou’s success reinforced Ming reliance on fortified cities and rapid-response garrisons in frontier regions.
3. The Köke Temür Enigma – His clever but ultimately futile maneuvers cemented his reputation as a brilliant but doomed holdout against Ming ascendancy.

Today, remnants of “Wang Baobao’s Forts” near Lanzhou stand as silent witnesses to this clash. The siege encapsulates a broader narrative of China’s transition from Mongol rule—a story of desperation, ingenuity, and the indomitable will of those caught in history’s tide.